2024 Plant Talk 13: Exotic Invasive Plants



8.29.24

Plant Talk 13: Exotic Invasive Plants

Hello plant enthusiasts,

What’s Blooming

Blooming is winding down in southern Appalachia but a list of a majority of the plants can be seen below.

Four O’Clocks (Mirabilis spp.) Nyctaginaceae

Gentian (Gentiana spp.) Gentianiaceae

Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia asarifolia)

Lady’s Tresses (Spiranthes spp.)

Morning Glories (Convolvulus spp.) and other Bindweeds (Calystegia spp.) in the Convolvulaceae

Nasturtiums (Tropaeolum majus) Tropaeolaceae

Sages (Salvia spp.) Lamiaceae

Wild Mallow (Malva sylvestris) Malvaceae

Trees and shrubs include        Abelia x grandiflora  Caprifoliaceae 

Butterfly Bush (Buddleja spp.) Scrophulariaceae

But the lion’s share of the blooms this time of year belong to the Asteraceae including, Asters (Eurybia, Symphyotrichum), Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), Compass Plant (Silphium spp.), Coreopsis spp., Echinacea spp., Goldenrods (Euthamia spp., Solidago spp.), Ironweeds (Vernonia spp.), Marigolds (Tagetes spp.), Mexican Sunflower (Tithonia sp.), Ragweed (Ambrosia spp.), Sunflower (Helianthus spp.), Wingstems (Verbesina spp.) and Zinnia spp. to name a few.

The ferociously opportunistic plants Silver Grass (Miscanthus sinensis) and Stilt Grass (Microstegium vinimeum) are starting to bloom large and in charge currently from the Poaceae as are many other grasses.

Fruits Ready for Harvest

Apples (Malus spp.), Asian Dogwood (Cornus kousa), Autumn Olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), Pawpaw (Asimina triloba), Pears (Pyrus spp.), Persimmons (Diospyros virginina), Plums (Prunus sp.) and Spice Bush (Lindera benzoin) fruits are coming ripe to name a few! The Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) at upper elevations such as Sam’s Knob are around peak and American Rowan (Sorbus americana) and Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) will be ready to pick soon as well.

Planted one Sun Gold and a volunteer Matt’s Wild Cherry type tomatoes and have been blessed with gallons of delicious fruits most of which i am dehydrating. My Peppers from the same Solanaceae family have been slow this year. This year’s Pepperetum has varieties like “Banana”, “Bishop’s Cap”, “Carolina Reaper” “Datil”, “Fatali”, “Fish”, “Habanero”, “Jalapeno”, “Pimento”, “Serrano” and “Shishito” which are all just starting to come on. Nonetheless, excited to make some different iterations of hot sauce shortly…

Introduction to Exotic and Invasive Plants and the Evolution of my Personal Connection to Them

Exotic invasives are a topic that i have explored for many years starting with my graduate research in 2007. The following is a revision and distillation from my time in school back then which initially focused on information for the southeastern U.S. Now information from around the country as well as other countries such as Australia, Canada, Hungary, Israel and New Zealand and others is also included.

Many names are given for exotic invasives. These include noxious, nonindigenous, alien, and non-native weeds. Andow (2005) offers a general definition. “Invasive alien species become established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats, are agents of change and threaten native biological diversity.” Invasive plants may come from far away continents or adjoining areas within one continent. In the U.S. most exotic invasive plants come from Europe or Asia collectively known as Eurasia.

The study of the exotic invasive issue has been a central focus within the science of Ecology (Bazely, 2003; Booth et al., 2011; Elton, 2000; Gallien & Carboni, 2017; Ghelardini et al., 2017; Leskey & Nielsen, 2018; Monaco & Sheley, 2012; Myers, 2003; Nuñez et al., 2017; Ross & Lembi, 2009; Shibu, 2013; Vilà et al., 2011; Wolkovich & Cleland, 2011).

The author Charles Mann wrote a book called 1493 (2011), which is a sequel to 1491 (2006) and in it he explores in part how vastly transformed the landscape of America has become due to the presence of  recently introduced organisms. This phenomenon includes not only plants, but microbes, insects, mollusks, rodents, earthworms, and of course people, etc… An interesting piece about the establishment of foreign plants since the 1600s maps the trajectory of the phenomenon into the 1800s as well (R. N. Mack, 2003).

Invasion ecology is the study of how invasive species interact in the environment. It is concerned with five questions: Which taxa invade? How fast? What makes ecosystems invasible? What is the impact? How can we contain, control, or eradicate harmful invaders? All of these questions are related to the particular habitat in question (Radosevich et al., 2007; Rejmanek, 2005).

Many factors relate to whether a plant will become invasive. These include the type of plant and the type of ecosystem in question. Plant characteristics include reproductive strategies, relation to biotic and abiotic forces, age to reproduction, and reproductive success. Specific reproductive strategies include seed dormancy regimes and adaptations for spread by humans and other agents of nature. Plants that have seeds that are the same size and shape of crop seeds may elude winnowing processes (Westbrooks, 1998). Plants that have flexible reproductive strategies are more likely to become invasive. Plants that have a number of pollinators, the potential for self- pollination, and other means of asexual reproduction are some examples. Plants that reproduce early in their life cycle and make copious amounts of seeds that are readily distributed are also potential invasives.

Other plant characteristics that aid in invasiveness include; long life, production of biological toxins, prickles, spines, thorns, the ability to parasitize other plants, and a high photosynthetic rate. Plants that show “fitness homeostasis” or the ability to flourish in a number of environments have a larger potential to become exotic invasives (Rejmanek, 2005). St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a big problem in the western USA due to its ability to cause photosensitivity in livestock. Thistles of various types such as Star Thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in the western USA and various species from other Aster family genera all over are well known for their spines i.e. (Cirsium spp., Carduus spp., Carthamus spp. and Milk Thistle Silybum marianum).

Ecosystem characteristics that effect exotic invasive potential include, availability of water, climate regime, position as a disturbed or climax environment, soil quality, nutrient resource availability, species diversity, and the type of plants already present. Characteristics of reproduction, historical exposure to selective pressure, and post-disturbance recovery rates are factors related to the resistance of plants that are already present to the invasion by exotics.

Only a fraction of introduced species are actually detrimental. These are known as “transformer species”. These plants actually change the character of the ecosystem that they inhabit. There are several ways in which a species may change the ecosystem including excessive use of water, changing the nutrient regime, changing the fire pattern, altering the process of erosion, building up of leaf litter, altering carbon storage and accumulation of salt (Cronk & Fuller, 2001; Rejmanek, 2005).

Some studies have looked directly on the effect to soil regarding exotic invasives (Allison & Vitousek, 2004; Barto & Cipollini, 2009; M. L. Brooks et al., 2004; Ehrenfeld, 2003; Lankau, 2011; M. C. Mack et al., 2001; Marler, 2020; Wixted & McGraw, 2010).

Other studies have analyzed the link between exotic invasives and fire (M. Brooks, 2013; M. L. Brooks et al., 2004; Di Tomaso & Johnson, 2006; Ferguson et al., 2010; Sugihara et al., 2006; Willems, 2010).

Trends in Exotic Invasive Plant Potential

Some families seem to exhibit more of a propensity toward invasiveness. These are included in the table below.

Amaranthaceae

Asteraceae

Brassicaceae

Fabaceae

Hydrocharitaceae

Lamiaceae

Papaveraceae

Poaceae

Polygonaceae

Likewise, some families are underrepresented in the exotic invasive flora including Acanthaceae, Orchidaceae, Podocarpaceae, Rubiaceae, and Zamiaceae. However, even in these underrepresented families exceptions do exist (Mooney, 2005).

According to the data from www.invasives.org NC, SC, TN, GA, KY, and VA have around 300 species listed at some level of invasiveness (Miller, Chambliss, & Bargeron, 2006). These plants represent 76 Families. Forty families have only one species represented, while eight families have only two species represented. Sixteen families have between three and five species represented. The remaining eleven families have 178 species represented. This includes well over half the total. The eleven top invasive families follow including the number of representative species in parentheses;

Grass family, Poaceae (61)

Figwort family, Scrophulariaceae (8)

Aster family, Asteraceae (28)

Rose family, Rosaceae (8)

Bean family, Fabaceae (27)

Honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae (8)

Mint family, Lamiaceae (10)

Tomato family, Solanaceae (6)

Smartweed family, Polygonaceae (9)

Mustard family, Brassicaceae (6)

Bindweed family, Convolvulaceae (9).

 

The top three families listed have over one third of the total number of invasive species! Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae are three of the most diverse species rich families in the world. However, they still represent a disproportionate amount of invasives given their percentage of total world flowering plant flora. Asteraceae contains roughly 25,000 spp. Fabaceae has about 19,350 spp. and Poaceae has about 10,000 spp. out of a total of approx 350,000 spp. (Groombridge & Jenkins, 2002; Heywood et al., 2007; Home, 2016). This equals roughly 17% of total world flora. The data related to plant family level invasiveness may be used in conjunction with other information to predict possible invasive tendencies. Correlating acreage affected by family and even genus may help set priorities of which invasive plants to control first. Genus diversity within prevalent exotic invasive plant families might also give clues as to the propensity of certain plants to invade.

The predominant life forms of invading plants in the southeastern USA are listed here with number of species following in parentheses; Forbs/Herbs (118), Grasses (61), Shrubs (39), Vines (30), Aquatic Plants (26) and Trees (19) (Miller et al., 2006). Connecting acreage affected with plant form may also help set control priorities. Unfortunately, at this time much work is left to be done in analyzing how many acres are truly affected by this diverse array of species. Some estimates have been made for individual species. For instance Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) alone has been shown to cover millions of acres (Finch, 2015; Lemke et al., 2011; H.-H. Wang et al., 2012). Total coverage by exotic invasives in the U.S. in 1998 already amounted to well over 100 million acres and was estimated to be growing at a rate of 8-20% annually (U.S. Dept of Interior, 1998). The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and satellite imagery may help characterize the nature of coverage by various exotic invasive plants (Albright et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2007; Dark, 2004; Ehrenfeld, 2008; Gelbard & Belnap, 2003; Morisette et al., 2006; Murray, 2009; Pyšek et al., 2004; Somodi et al., 2012; H.-H. Wang et al., 2012). A great website hosts an Exotic Invasive Plant atlas in this regard as well.

Some exotic invasives have been studied rather in depth like Japanese Knotweed (Reynoutria japonica syn Polgonum cuspidatum) (Child, 1999; Child & Wade, 2000; Gerber et al., 2008; Hulina & Đumija, 1999; Kelley, 2016; Lecerf, 2007; D. Moore, 2006). Here’s an interesting article by Slate on the subject. On the For the Wild podcast my colleague Tusha Yakovleva who has done extensive work on Japanese Knotweed is informative on the subject of invasives as well.

Another one would be Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata) (Barto & Cipollini, 2009; D. J. Burke, 2008; Cipollini & Gruner, 2007; Eschtruth Anne K. & Battles John J., 2009; Lankau, 2011; McCarthy & Hanson, 1998; Pichtel et al., 2000; Prati & Bossdorf, 2004; Rodgers et al., 2008; Vaughn & Berhow, 1999; Wixted & McGraw, 2010).

Many others are in need of further study. One report clearly shows that plants like Privet (Ligustrum sp.) at 3.2 million acres and Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora) at almost a million acres are much bigger problems in regards to total acreage covered compared to the assessment of Kudzu at 227,000 acres (Finch, 2015).

Scope of Exotic Invasive Plants

Invasive species tend to continue to proliferate, unlike other forms of pollution that may naturally degrade over time once the source has been controlled (Weber, 2003). Exotic invasives can lower the value of land for various uses. The control of exotics and losses of production because of them cost billions of dollars each year plus other costs to the environment as well (Burrell, 2006; Keller et al., 2009; Myers, 2003; Pimentel et al., 2005; Vilà et al., 2011).

About 8,000 species or just over 2% of all known plants are considered to be invasive. Of these about 200-250 spp. or approx .07% of the total known species are recognized as major problems in world agriculture, with about 80 taxa representing the primary and most troublesome species (Westbrooks, 1998). At least 4,500 species of foreign plants and animals have been introduced that have free-living populations in the U.S. since the time of European colonization. Of that total at least 675 cause some form of economic damage (Westbrooks, 1998). Almost 3,500 species of plants are recognized as weeds in the U.S. (Weed Science Society of America, 2007). Typically about 65% of weeds come from exotic locales. Some references also cover the scope of worldwide weeds as well (L. Holm et al., 1997; L. G. Holm, 1991; Weber, 2017; Winston et al., 2014).

A lot of work has been done from researchers in different ecotypes about the nature of plant invasions. In New England some region specific literature has been generated (Gavier-Pizarro Gregorio I. et al., 2010; Huebner et al., 2005; Royer & Dickinson, 1999). Connecticut has a nice array of specific resources for the state specifically as well (Bugbee & Balfour, 2010; Capers, 2005; Connecticut Invasive Plant Council, 2004). Nearby Massachusetts has developed a resource too (Weatherbee & Somers, 1998) and the same for Maine (Maine Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program, 2007).

A number of resources are available for the southwestern U.S. (Chambers & Hall, 2001; Chambers & Hawkins, 2002; Thomas & Guertin, 2007; M. R. White, 2008, 2011).

Likewise for the Pacific Northwest (PNW) (Boersma et al., 2006; Ciesla, 2002; Gray et al., 2011; Harrington & Reichard, 2007; Sherley, 2000; Skrine, 2005). Alaska at the extreme of the PNW region has a literature all its own (Bauder, 2005; Hébert, 2001; Shephard, 2007). This is also the case a little further inland in Montana (Carpenedo & Saul, 2010; Rens, 2003).

California probably has more published resources than most places (Bossard et al., 2000; Coates, 2006; Colvin, 2008; Dark, 2003; Di Tomaso & Johnson, 2006; Donlan et al., 2003; K. Moore & Hyland, 2002; Rejmánek & Randall, 1994; Robbins et al., 1970; Strauss et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2013).

The Midwest has a little bit that i have been able to turn up so far (Czarapata, 2005; Gonzalez & Christoffersen, 2006; Gould & Gorchov, 2000; Howe, 2008; Klein, 2004; M. D. Smith & Knapp, 2001; Trebitz & Taylor, 2007). Some state specific references include Oklahoma (Cooper et al., 2010; Oklahoma Invasive Plant Council, 2010) Wisconsin (Hoffman & Kearns, 1997; Wisconsin Bureau of Endangered Resources, 2010) and Minnesota (Trails and Waterways Division, 2002).

Many resources for the southeast are cited throughout this class. However to put a fine point on it North Carolina has a couple resources (Cole et al., 2013; C. Smith, 2008; Western North Carolina Tomorrow, 2000). Tennessee has at least one specific resource (Lambdin & Grant, 2000). Kentucky as well (Haragan, 1991)  and Georgia too (C. W. Evans et al., 2008).

Neotropical places like Hawaii have a unique issue for the U.S.A. in regards to invasives (M. C. Mack et al., 2001; Staples & Cowie, 2001; Stone, 1993). Guam has some invasive literature too (Marler, 2020; Reddy, 2011; Wald et al., 2019).  Palau has one resource i have been able to find so far (DeMeo, 2002). Florida has some similar issues to Polynesia and shares a number of plants with that area (Gordon, 1998; Langeland, 1998; Ramey, 2005; Simberloff et al., 1997). I have come across a great website full of resources for the invasives of the Caribbean as well.

Canada is amongst a number of other countries have developed literature on exotic invasives  (Derickx & Antunes, 2013; Haber, 2000; Havinga, 2000; Lavoie et al., 2003; D. J. White et al., 1993; Wikeem, 2006).

Australia is another great example of very robust literature in regards to exotic invasives (Ainsworth & Swane, 2004; G. Burke, 1996; Glanznig et al., 2004; Groves et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2006; Martin, 2003; Navie & Adkins, 2008).

New Zealand also has some (Hetherington, 2012) as does India (Bhatt, 2012).

To get out of the former British colonies i would like to cite work that has been done in Europe, Israel, South Africa and Hungary (Botta-Dukát, 2008; Bromilow, 2001; Dufour-Dror, 2012; Henderson, 2001; Keller et al., n.d.).

Are you aware of a resource about exotic invasives around you? If so please share in the comments below, in an email to me or on the Facebook group.

Effects on Biodiversity

Non-native plants for awhile have been considered to be the second biggest threat to biodiversity following development (Westbrooks, 1998). Some exotic invasives poison other biota either through allelopathy or through their toxicity to grazing animals (Weathers & Cheeke, 1998; Zeng et al., 2008). Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) and Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) are two exotic invasives in Appalachia that exude toxins from their roots that are not good for other plants. Some studies have been conducted on the Tree of Heaven in particular (Buck, 2002; Heisey, 1990, 1996; Lawrence et al., 1991). Numerous studies have looked at the the effects of Garlic Mustard as well (Barto & Cipollini, 2009; D. J. Burke, 2008; Cipollini & Gruner, 2007; Lankau, 2011; McCarthy & Hanson, 1998; Prati & Bossdorf, 2004; Vaughn & Berhow, 1999).

In 1998 the habitat of two-thirds of all threatened and endangered species was thought to already be imperiled by invasives (U.S. Dept of Interior, 1998). Exotic invasives can exacerbate the fire regime which may change available habitat for native plants and cause threats to human settlements (M. Brooks, 2013; M. L. Brooks et al., 2004). Chinese Silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis) is a plant in Appalachia and beyond that may increase fire risk. At the same time this genus has been studied as a potential source of biofuel (Christian et al., 2008; Clifton‐brown et al., 2004; Clifton‐Brown et al., 2007; Heaton et al., 2008; Khanna et al., 2008).

Riparian areas are also often severely affected by exotic invasives (Bugbee & Balfour, 2010; Carpenedo & Saul, 2010; De Waal, 1994; Lavoie et al., 2003; May, 2007; Trebitz & Taylor, 2007; D. J. White et al., 1993; Zedler, 2004). Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) in the western U.S. is a very challenging problem in wetland places though its true effect is now sometimes debated (Chew, 2009; Morisette et al., 2006; Sher & Quigley, 2013; Stromberg et al., 2009; L. Wang et al., 2013).

Native herbivores don’t always feed on non-native plants as readily as food sources they are used to (Darke & Tallamy, 2014; Gosper, Stansbury, & Vivian‐Smith, 2005; S. B. Smith, DeSando, & Pagano, 2013; Tallamy, 2009).

Open water environments are notorious for the introduction of exotic invasives (Rejmanek et al. 2005). Many plants from just a few families have quickly become noxious weeds.

These families include:

Alismataceae

Araceae

Azollaceae

Haloragaceae

Hydrocharitaceae

Najadaceae

Pontederiaceae

Potamogetonaceae

Sparganiaceae

Most of the genera listed for these families have Class A highest priority status in the Carolinas. However, they do not even appear in the standard flora for this area that was written only five decades ago (Radford et al., 1968). The absence of such important invasives from a relatively recent survey of plant life shows the quick moving nature of some infestations. Elpel covers many of these exotic invasive water families listed alphabetically. Alismataceae (173), Azollaceae (41), Haloragaceae (112), Najadaceae (174), and Potamogetonaceae (175).

A well-developed literature addresses the phenomenon of aquatic invasions specifically (Bugbee & Balfour, 2010; Capers, 2005; Carpenedo & Saul, 2010; De Waal, 1994; Henderson, 2002; Lecerf, 2007; Maine Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program, 2007; May, 2007; Ramey, 2005; D. J. White et al., 1993; Zedler, 2004). North Carolina State University has also developed and App to identify Aquatic Plants.

How are Exotic Invasive Plants Introduced?

Invasion typically follows a certain order. These steps include introduction, naturalization, facilitation, spread, interaction with animals and other plants, and stabilization (Cronk & Fuller, 2001). Vectors for the introduction of exotic invasive plants include ports, botanical gardens, plant collectors, foreign produce, nurseries, research stations, factories, and travelers.

The rate of spread can vary by orders of magnitude depending on the confluence of various factors (Rejmanek, 2005). Certain vectors are more dangerous than others. This phenomenon is largely due to awareness, scale and repetition of risky behavior. It is necessary to prioritize which vectors are the biggest issues and reduce their potential (Rejmanek, Richardson and Higgins, 2005).

Globalization and the liberalization of trade have led to increased introduction of exotic invasives by accident. Plants have been known to hitchhike on boats or in their ballast water and then set up residence. Domestic sources can also lead to accidental introduction of exotic invasives. For example, hay that is used for mulch may contain seeds of exotics. Hay used for forage on public lands must often be certified weed free (United States, 1998).

Most exotic invasives have been introduced intentionally by the horticulture trade (Reichard & White, 2001; Weber, 2017). “In most countries horticultural releases have been considered safe, and little has been done to manage potential environmental risks of these introductions despite abundant scientific evidence that these introductions can cause environmental harm” (Andow, 2005). According to one study over half the species invading natural areas in the U.S. were introduced through the trade in ornamentals (Randall & Marinelli, 1996). For instance, gardeners at the Biltmore Estate near where i live are thought to be potentially responsible for introducing invasives (Alexander, 2007). Wildflower seed mixtures often contain a certain percentage of weed seeds. Therefore, buyers should acquire mixes with a low percentage of weed seeds and control any weeds that germinate before they become a problem.

Some of the most noxious exotic invasives are still for sale and used for a number of applications. These include Silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis), Periwinkle (Vinca spp.), Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Orbicular Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), Lespedeza (Lespedeza spp.), Autumn Olive/Silverthorn (Elaeagnus spp.), and Heavenly Bamboo Nandina domestica. It is hard to understand why the sale of these plants is not outlawed. The continuing sale of known exotic invasives represents an example of externalized costs. The horticulture industry is allowed to make a profit off of something that costs tax payers subsequently many millions of dollars.

Alternatives to planting exotic invasives do exist. Some varieties of Heavenly Bamboo (Nandina domestica) are sterile. Cultivars of Silver Grass (Miscanthus sinensis) can also vary widely in seed viability and fertility (Miller et al., 2006). A number of books speak to the virtues of native plants that have analogous uses to exotic invasives (Ainsworth & Swane, 2004; Burrell, 2006; Dept. of Conservation & Wellington Conservancy, 2005). The North Carolina Native plant society has a list as does the North Carolina botanical garden and NC State University. The NC botanical garden also has a list of sustainable native plants nurseries from across the country.

Using native plants in a garden has many benefits. They attract beneficial wildlife and insects, they allow a gardener to create a garden that reflects the native beauty of the region, and they make a garden more sustainable (Society, 2016). Because of all this, natives are an increasingly popular plant choice for home and public gardens. Native Plants of the Southeast is one resource that shows one how to choose the best native plants and how to use them in the garden (Mellichamp & Stuart, 2014). This complete guide is an invaluable resource, with plant profiles for over 460 species of trees, shrubs, vines, ferns, grasses, and wildflowers. Each plant description includes information about cultivation and propagation, ranges, and hardiness. Comprehensive lists recommend particular plants for difficult situations, as well as plants for attracting butterflies, hummingbirds, and other wildlife. The use of native plants for landscaping will lessen the viable populations that may escape from foreign cultivars. The growth and sale of native plants presents a significant economic opportunity for local nurseries and landscapers. Many natives that are endangered can have their populations bolstered by use in the landscape. One great example is the current use of Witch Alder (Fothergilla major) in the landscape. This is a native plant with many positive aesthetic values that is now rather uncommon in the wild.

The maintenance of ecological functionality has led to the introduction of many exotic invasives. Many plants have been introduced to prevent erosion and as forage for wildlife. Some examples include Kudzu (Pueraria montana), Lespedezas (Lespedeza  spp.), and various members of the genus Elaeagnus. The literature is littered with plants that were introduced for their forage potential. Unfortunately, such plants have a built in dispersal mechanism by birds and other wildlife that may lead to long distance establishment away from the original planting area.

Institutional Framework for Control of Exotic Invasive Plants

All applicable stakeholders need to be involved in exotic invasive control including land managers, conservation associations, federal agencies, universities, horticulturalists, weed scientists, government officials, media, private citizens, local businesses, tourism boards, etc. The exotic invasive phenomenon is too large to be controlled by any one entity. Millions of dollars spent on remediation measures will do no good if plants continue to be dispersed through lack of awareness.

The best indicator of potential invasiveness of a species is its invasiveness in a similar habitat elsewhere (Poorter, 2005). Databases from host countries, weed manuals, and plant floras are all useful tools (Ball et al., 2001; Haragan, 1991; L. G. Holm, 1991; Robbins et al., 1970; Royer & Dickinson, 1999; Western North Carolina Tomorrow, 2000).

Campaigns to inform the public about the threat from exotic invasives take on a number of forms. Federal, state and local authorities all produce a variety of materials including pamphlets, brochures, videos, interpretive exhibits, and classes. Nonetheless, much is left to be done to educate the public about the challenges faced regarding exotic invasives. The Department of Transportation in North Carolina published a guide about exotic invasives that may serve as a model for other areas (C. Smith, 2008). There is a campaign in the community of Sandy Mush near where i live to come together for the removal of invasives. What organizations around you are doing this kind of work? Write about them in the comments below or on Facebook is you can.

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is one tool under the banner of the International Plant Pest Convention (IPPC). The IPPC was signed by the United States and is administered under the Food and Agriculture Organization (Andow, 2005). The implementation of IPPC rules has led towards a presumption of safe until proved otherwise. Therefore, PRA’s must be conducted in a timely fashion to head off possible pest problems before they become an overwhelming issue.

The National Park Service of the U.S. also has a qualitative risk assessment tool. Their models use a point scale to rank a species potential for invasiveness, cost of control, and the consequences of delay. All these factors are combined to determine which organisms should be prioritized for management (Andow, 2005). National parks are constantly under threat from exotic invasives due to their large size and especially diverse habitats and many studies have been carried out at the individual park level in the USA and abroad (Goodrich, 2013; Otfinowski, 2008; Service, 2013a, 2013c, 2013b).

Many other entities within the U.S. government do work concerning exotic invasive plants. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for the prevention of the introduction of foreign weeds. They work to eradicate introduced pests and regulate the importation of potential invasives. The Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds (FICMNEW) is a group of 17 organizations dedicated to determining ecologically sound ways to manage invasive plants on federal and private lands.

Regional research centers can possibly offer the resource of limited introduction as an intermediate step in assessing if a problem may arise. This type of research is very time consuming and somewhat limited by definition. For instance, a species may respond differently under various conditions of soil types, nutrient regimes, and climate that are hard to replicate. Nonetheless, research is necessary to justify appropriate rules and regulations concerning exotic invasives. The Southeast Early Detection Network is a regional resource to help reporting across different interest groups and agencies the invasion of plants but also wildlife, insects and diseases. There is now also an Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System set up by various chapters across North America.

Tools of Control

Prevention is the cheapest and most effective means of exotic invasive control (Westbrooks, 1998). One aspect of prevention is education and the North Carolina Invasive Plant council has a host of resources for teachers including videos, games, articles and songs!

Other types of control include mechanical, chemical, burning, and biological. (Di Tomaso & Johnson, 2006; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007; Miller et al., 2010; K. Moore & Hyland, 2002; Wikeem, 2006).

Practitioners must first decide where to focus efforts. They need to decide whether to concentrate on outlying areas in which invasives are spreading or look to areas of particular biological interest. Economics are also a key factor in deciding control strategies. Ultimately an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy is the most effective means of controlling exotic invasive plants (Chace, 2013; Clout & Williams, 2009; Miller, 2007; Morris, 2009; Myers, 2003). IPM is a holistic approach to managing pests taking into account economic, environmental, and social implications of infestations.

Mechanical control can be a useful practice though it is typically employed in partnership with responsible herbicide use for larger scale invasions (Miller, 2007). Brush cutting can allow for the treatment of plants basally and of the more susceptible tender re-growth. Use of various disking implements and rakes may only serve to propagate certain asexually reproducing species. String trimmers may be used to wound waxy leaves and provide for more effective herbicide uptake. Repeated application of mechanical techniques such as brush cutting and mowing can eventually exhaust the re-growth potential of some plants such as Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora) (Kay et al., 1995). Girdling and mulching are two other mechanical techniques that are effective with certain species.

Herbicides should be the last resort, but are sometimes necessary for heavy infestations of particular species. Judicious use of the least persistent, most effective, and environmentally friendly herbicides is therefore sometimes warranted (Randall & Marinelli, 1996). A number of methods are used with the application of chemical herbicides. These include foliar sprays, stem injection, cut-treat, basal sprays, and soil spots. Care must be exercised when applying herbicides. Responsible applicators uses the right chemical, in the right quantity, at the right time of year, using the right technique and following all precautions as noted on the label!

Organic herbicides do exist. They are mostly based on high concentrations of vinegar often in concert with other botanical oils (Abouziena et al., 2009; Brainard et al., 2013; Cai & Gu, 2016; G. J. Evans et al., 2009, 2011; G. J. Evans & Bellinder, 2009). Others are based off of a product derived from Corn (Hebert & Lyons, 2011).

Much research has being conducted on the use of biological controls for exotic invasives (Callaway et al., 1999; Coombs et al., 2004; Ding, Reardon, et al., 2006; Ding, Wu, et al., 2006; Dufour, 2000; Hinz & Schwarzlaender, 2004; Hoddle, 2004; Keane & Crawley, 2002; Louda et al., 1997; MacKinnon et al., 2005; Markin, 1991; Messing & Wright, 2006; Pearson & Callaway, 2003; Schat & Verkleij, 1998; Simberloff & Stiling, 1996; Van Driesche, 2002; Winston et al., 2014; Zheng, 2005).

Scientists will often go to the home range of an introduced plant and observe its natural predators. Caution must be used before large scale introduction of such predators. The possibility of unexpected deleterious side effects from biological predator introduction needs to be assessed first. Biological controls also need to be as target specific as possible.

Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) presents an example of a biological control success story. One disease and two insects are now preying on multiflora rose and are expected to largely control it eventually (Amerine, 2000). It remains to be seen if these predators will move onto native roses when and if the exotic invasive one becomes eradicated. Some people also use animals such as goats to control invasives such as Kudzu, Multiflora rose, and other brambles (Kay et al., 1995). Other friends of mine feed their goats Privet (Ligustrum sp.). Care must be taken, as animals can also be vectors for the spread of invasives if they consume fruits which produce viable seeds post digestion (Miller, 2007).

Many exotic invasives have uses in their places of origin. Some of these plants are used for food, medicine, and crafts. Harvesting for use may become another method of deterrent if the general public can be encouraged to take up some of these traditional practices. This phenomenon would essentially create a resource from a menace. i presented research on this idea for the 2008 Society for Economic Botany Conference held at Duke University. A publication by Timothy Lee Scott (2010) does an intriguing job of exploring the potential of invasive plant medicine in particular. A website www.alienweeds.com covers many aspects of using invasives for crafts. Nancy Gift (2009), who is a  Harvard and University of Kentucky trained Weed Scientist in her book A Weed by any other Name also speaks vividly about the “virtues of a messy lawn”. Authors Fred Pearce (2015) and Tao Orion (2015) have also espoused the reframing of our relationship to these organisms and how we characterize them. Here is an interesting article by the BBC about the case of Ascension Island as a counter narrative to the solely deleterious effects of exotic invasives especially in an island context. One of my favorite foragers Adam Haritan has a thought provoking video on exotic invasives as well.

Ethnobiologist Matthew Chew maybe more than anybody in the academic space has taken up the mantle for confronting the complexities of how exotic invasive plants are characterized in society (Chew, 2009, 2011, 2015; Chew & Laubichler, 2003; Davis et al., 2011; Stromberg et al., 2009). i first found out about Matthew through his appearance on Kelly Moody’s Groundshots Podcast. This is one of my favorite podcast series ever and Kelly is a dear friend and inspiration so please support her if you can! Other episodes covering exotic invasives include Angela Moles, Gabe Crawford, Nikki Hill and Sharon Kallis.

My research shows that a significant amount of exotic invasives can be used for food, medicine, crafts and more. i have recorded a total of at least 123 species out of 300 species listed as invasive by SC, NC, KY, VA, TN, and GA to have some potential use. Fifty-six species listed as top priority by at least one of these states has a potential use. The large majority of plants with a use can be employed for food, medicines, or natural dyes (Buchanan, 1995; Cannon & Cannon, 2003; Couplan, 1998; Duke, 1992; Duke & Foster, 1999; L. Peterson, 1978).

Kudzu is one example of an exotic invasive plant that can be used for all manner of applications including food, medicine, fuel and fiber (Baldwin, 2003; Benlhabib et al., 2004; Forseth & Innis, 2004; Hoots & Baldwin, 1996; Keung & Vallee, 1998; Lukas et al., 2005; Penetar et al., 2015; Shebek & Rindone, 2000; Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 1985; Tungmunnithum et al., 2020; Winberry & Jones, 1973). A company named Kudzu Culture based in Asheville has an inspiring website and on the ground activities revolving around this incredible useful plant.

The exotic invasive literature rarely if ever addresses these potential uses or their possibility as a means of control. i hope to help rectify these omissions as time goes on. You can see the list at the following http://www.botanyeveryday.com/resources?expand=19.

A number of websites have also taken on the task of featuring the employment of exotic invasives for various uses including Eat the Invasives, Invasivore, and Forager’s Harvest. i am particularly fond of the art work of Patterson Clark featured at Alien Weeds. Herbalist Alyssa Dennis has a whole series of online educational videos on potential applications of exotic invasives.

Further Research with Exotic Invasives

Further research might focus on a variety of questions. What is the economic and social viability of pursuing identified uses? How effective are harvesting practices in relation to controlling target species? What other uses might be identified? What is the correlation between form of plant and area affected? What are the relations between major invasive families and genus diversity? What is the most effective means to pursue notification and conversation with various regulatory bodies to align invasive categorization and treatment prioritization? Global climate change also seems like it will possibly contribute to the spread of exotic invasive species (Clements & Ditommaso, 2011; Mooney, 2005; Rahel & Olden, 2008; Stace & Crawley, 2015; Thuiller et al., 2007; Ziska et al., 2011).

The role of exotic invasives in Appalachia might be studied through the Appalachian Plant Materials Center. The Southeast which includes most of southern Appalachia has over 300 species considered as exotic invasives. Some literature for Appalachia has also been developed already (Adams et al., 2019; Albright et al., 2009; Belote et al., 2008; Brown & Peet, 2003; Ford et al., 2012; Kuhman et al., 2010, 2010).

The field of exotic invasive control needs further studies to determine the full economic impact of exotic invasives. These types of studies would help justify the expense of control efforts and the prevention of further infestations (Poland et al., 2021).

Lists of possible native analogues for various areas need to be further compiled. Dr. Sunshine Brosi made the point to me that the ability to distinguish between natives and exotic invasive relatives is also important. A couple guides have pointed out exotic invasives and their native look a likes (Maine Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program, 2007; Sarver, 2008). Good natured people trying to control invasives may instead remove their often rare and threated native relatives by accident i.e. native Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) while trying to remove exotic invasive Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus). As an aside, i learned at an international ethnobotany conference that the introduced Bittersweet is consumed as food in at least one part of China (Kang et al., 2012). However, i would state that this same community consumes other plants known to be dangerous if not toxic and the Bittersweet family (Celastraceae) is typically not consumed for food as far as i know. It does have a history of medicinal use in Asia as well though (Duke & Foster, 2014). Dr. Brosi also brought to my attention the fact that support of exotic invasive uses can sometimes have unforeseen deleterious consequences such as the societal promotion of the growth and preservation of such organisms (Nuñez et al., 2012).

Another thing to think about regarding conservation biology is using as local as possible plant material for native species planting as seed or propagules from afar are in essence genetically exotic albeit on a smaller scale than plants from further afield. A factor which is an especially important consideration if the species worked with is rare in distribution.

Nurseries can be engaged to fill the niche of native plant production. A number of resources exist to help this practice (Bir, 1992; Bridle, 2011; Burrell, 2006; Cullina, 2000, 2002; Foote & Jones, 1989; Harper-Lore & Wilson, 2000; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998). Prairie Moon Nursery is one of my favorite seed suppliers though their genotypes might be from outside the Appalachian region since their base is in the midwest. Native plant growers can also supply material for the re-vegetation of public natural areas.

Hopefully, this information on exotic invasive plants has empowered you to be more aware of what you might introduce to the area where you live and how you might help control the exotics that are already running rampant across the land.

For the next class we will cover major Plants that Support Biodiversity. The class will be posted around September 7th.

Below are items to think about/comment on. Please write me directly at marc@botanyeveryday.com or leave information in the commentary under this class.

 i WOULD REALLY LOVE TO HEAR WHAT YOU HAVE TO SAY!!!

- Do some research into the utility for invasive plants around you and share that info with some people

-Do your part to remove some exotic invasives from a sensitive area either alone or in partnership with a local organization

- Plan a fall garden

- Attend a workshop or a class and write up a brief description of plants or information learned.

- Post any clear photos of question plants to Facebook or send in an email.

Praises to all that have donated to the cause. i encourage everyone reading this to donate as they are able financially, commentarialy, or energetically... Your contributions greatly help me continue this crucial work of ethnobotanical research and education. Please let me know your thoughts in general and anyway i can help this class serve you best.

Thanks, marc

Literature Cited

Abouziena, H. F. H., Omar, A. A. M., Sharma, S. D., & Singh, M. (2009). Efficacy Comparison of Some New Natural-Product Herbicides for Weed Control at Two Growth Stages. Weed Technology, 23(3), 431–437. https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-08-185.1

Adams, M. B., Sanderson, T., Sena, K., Barton, C. D., Agouridis, C. T., Angel, P. N., & Zipper, C. E. (2019). Managing Invasive Exotic Plant Species on Legacy Mine Lands [Report]. Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/103106

Ainsworth, D., & Swane, E. (2004). Discovering alternatives to garden escapes and stopping the spread of invasive plants. Horticulture Australia.

Albright, T. P., Anderson, D. P., Keuler, N. S., Pearson, S. M., & Turner, M. G. (2009). The spatial legacy of introduction: Celastrus orbiculatus in the southern Appalachians, USA. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46(6), 1229–1238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01707.x

Alexander, B. (2007). The Biltmore Nursery: A Botanical Legacy. The History Press.

Allison, S. D., & Vitousek, P. M. (2004). Rapid nutrient cycling in leaf litter from invasive plants in Hawai’i. Oecologia, 141(4), 612–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-004-1679-z

Amerine, J. W. (2000, November). Biological Control Agents of Multiflora Rose. West Viriginia Cooperative Extension. http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/ipm/weeds/multiflor.htm

Andow, D. A. (2005). Characterizing Ecological Risks of Introductions and Invasions. In Harold A. Mooney (Ed.), Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis (pp. 84–103). Island Press.

Baldwin, J. (2003). Kudzu in America. Suntop.

Ball, D. A., Dewey, S. A., Elmore, C., Lyn, R. G., Morishita, D. W., Swan, D. G., & Zollinger, R. K. (2001). Weeds of the West (T. D. Whitson, R. Parker, & D. Cudney, Eds.; 9th ed.). University of Wyoming.

Barto, K. E., & Cipollini, D. (2009). Half-lives and field soil concentrations of Alliaria petiolata secondary metabolites. Chemosphere, 76(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.02.020

Bauder, P. (2005). Invasive plants of Alaska. U.S. Dept. of the Interior.

Bazely, D. (2003). Ecology and Control of Introduced Plants: Evaluating and Responding to Invasive Plants. Cambridge University Press. http://www.myilibrary.com?id=41450

Belote, R. T., Jones, R. H., Hood, S. M., & Wender, B. W. (2008). Diversity–Invasibility Across an Experimental Disturbance Gradient in Appalachian Forests. Ecology, 89(1), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-0270.1

Benlhabib, E., Baker, J. I., Keyler, D. E., & Singh, A. K. (2004). Kudzu Root Extract Suppresses Voluntary Alcohol Intake and Alcohol Withdrawal Symptoms in P Rats Receiving Free Access to Water and Alcohol. Journal of Medicinal Food, 7(2), 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1089/1096620041224210

Bhatt, J. R. (2012). Invasive alien plants: An ecological appraisal for the Indian subcontinent. CAB International.

Bir, R. E. (1992). Growing and Propagating Showy Native Woody Plants. The University of North Carolina Press.

Boersma, P. D., Reichard, S. H., & Van Buren, A. N. (2006). Invasive species in the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press.

Booth, B. D., Murphy, S. D., & Swanton, C. J. (2011). Invasive plant ecology in natural and agricultural systems. CABI.

Bossard, C. C., Randall, J. M., & Hoshovsky, M. C. (Eds.). (2000). Invasive Plants of California’s Wildlands (1st ed). University of California Press.

Botta-Dukát, Z. (2008). The most important invasive plants in Hungary. HAS Institute of Ecology and Botany.

Brainard, D. C., Curran, W. S., Bellinder, R. R., Ngouajio, M., VanGessel, M. J., Haar, M. J., Lanini, W. T., & Masiunas, J. B. (2013). Temperature and Relative Humidity Affect Weed Response to Vinegar and Clove Oil. Weed Technology, 27(1), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-D-12-00073.1

Bridle, K., A. (Ed.). (2011). North Carolina Native Plant Propagation Handbook (2nd ed.). North Carolina Wildflower Preservation Society.

Bromilow, C. (2001). Problem plants of South Africa: A guide to the identification and control of more than 300 invasive plants and other weeds. Briza.

Brooks, M. (2013). Fire Management and Invasive Plants Handbook. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Brooks, M. L., D’antonio, C. M., Richardson, D. M., Grace, J. B., Keeley, J. E., DiTOMASO, J. M., Hobbs, R. J., Pellant, M., & Pyke, D. (2004). Effects of Invasive Alien Plants on Fire Regimes. BioScience, 54(7), 677–688. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0677:EOIAPO]2.0.CO;2

Brown, R. L., & Peet, R. K. (2003). Diversity and Invasibility of Southern Appalachian Plant Communities. Ecology, 84(1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0032:DAIOSA]2.0.CO;2

Buchanan, R. (1995). A Dyer’s Garden: From Plant to Pot: Growing Dyes for Natural Fibers. Interweave Press.

Buck, J. E. (2002). The impact of Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle (Simaroubaceae), an invasive exotic, on ground cover biodiversity in a disturbed Virginia woodland.

Bugbee, G. J., & Balfour, M. E. (2010). Connecticut’s invasive aquatic and wetland plants identification guide. http://www.ct.gov/caes/lib/caes/documents/publications/bulletins/b1027.pdf

Burke, D. J. (2008). Effects of Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard; Brassicaceae) on mycorrhizal colonization and community structure in three herbaceous plants in a mixed deciduous forest. American Journal of Botany, 95(11), 1416–1425. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.0800184

Burke, G. (1996). More than pests: The strategic significance of feral animals and invasive plants for nature conservation and landcare in Western Australia. Institute for Science and Technology Policy, Murdoch University.

Burrell, C. C. (2006). Native Alternatives to Invasive Plants. Brooklyn Botanic Garden.

Cai, X., & Gu, M. (2016). Bioherbicides in Organic Horticulture. Horticulturae, 2(2), 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae2020003

Callaway, R. M., DeLuca, T. H., & Belliveau, W. M. (1999). Biological-Control Herbivores May Increase Competitive Abilty Of The Noxious Weed Centaurea Maculosa. Ecology, 80(4), 1196–1201. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1196:BCHMIC]2.0.CO;2

Cannon, J., & Cannon, M. (2003). Dye Plants and Dyeing. Timber Press.

Capers, R. S. (2005). A guide to invasive aquatic plants in Connecticut. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.

Carpenedo, S. M., & Saul, L. A. (2010). Common native and invasive wetland plants in Montana. Montana Dept. of Environmental Quality.

Chace, T. (2013). How to eradicate invasive plants. Timber Press.

Chambers, N., & Hall, J. (2001). A resource guide for invasive plant management in the Sonoran Desert. Sonoran Institute : Nature Conservancy.

Chambers, N., & Hawkins, T. (2002). Invasive plants of the Sonoran Desert. Sonoran Institute.

Chen, H., Chen, L., & Albright, T. P. (2007). Predicting the potential distribution of invasive exotic species using GIS and information-theoretic approaches: A case of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) distribution in China. Chinese Science Bulletin, 52(9), 1223–1230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-007-0192-2

Chew, M. K. (2009). The Monstering of Tamarisk: How Scientists made a Plant into a Problem. Journal of the History of Biology, 42(2), 231–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9181-4

Chew, M. K. (2011). Invasion Biology: Historical Precedents. In Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions (pp. 369–375). University of California Press. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520948433-084/html

Chew, M. K. (2015). Ecologists, environmentalists, experts, and the invasion of the “second greatest threat.” International Review of Environmental History. https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/INFORMIT.295295347126406

Chew, M. K., & Laubichler, M. D. (2003). Natural Enemies—Metaphor or Misconception? Science, 301(5629), 52–53. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1085274

Child, L. (1999). Vegetative regeneration and distribution of Fallopia japonica and Fallopia x bohemica: Implications for control and management [Doctorate]. Loughborough University.

Child, L., & Wade, P. M. (2000). The Japanese knotweed manual: The management and control of an invasive alien weed. Packard Publishing.

Christian, D. G., Riche, A. B., & Yates, N. E. (2008). Growth, yield and mineral content of Miscanthus×giganteus grown as a biofuel for 14 successive harvests. Industrial Crops and Products, 28(3), 320–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2008.02.009

Ciesla, W. M. (2002). Invasive insects, pathogens and plants in Western and Pacific island forests. Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, USDA Forest Service.

Cipollini, D., & Gruner, B. (2007). Cyanide in the chemical arsenal of garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 33(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9205-x

Clements, D. R., & Ditommaso, A. (2011). Climate change and weed adaptation: Can evolution of invasive plants lead to greater range expansion than forecasted? Weed Research, 51(3), 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2011.00850.x

Clifton‐Brown, J. C., Breuer, J., & Jones, M. B. (2007). Carbon mitigation by the energy crop, Miscanthus. Global Change Biology, 13(11), 2296–2307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01438.x

Clifton‐brown, J. C., Stampfl, P. F., & Jones, M. B. (2004). Miscanthus biomass production for energy in Europe and its potential contribution to decreasing fossil fuel carbon emissions. Global Change Biology, 10(4), 509–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00749.x

Clout, M. N., & Williams, P. A. (2009). Invasive species management: A handbook of principles and techniques. Oxford University Press.

Coates, P. A. (2006). American perceptions of immigrant and invasive species strangers on the land. University of California Press. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=180499

Cole, H., Megalos, M. A., & Temple, C. (2013). Healthy forests: Invasive plants and your forests. North Carolina Cooperative Extension.

Colvin, W. (2008). Invasive plants conservation and restoration on Santa Cruz Island CA: Linking the social and natural sciences to resolve an environmental problem in Channel Islands National Park. Müller.

Connecticut Invasive Plant Council. (2004). Connecticut invasive plant list IPANE ; invasive plant atlas of New England.

Coombs, E., M., Clark, J. K., Piper, G. L., & Cofrancesco, A. F. (Eds.). (2004). Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press.

Cooper, J., Oklahoma Invasive Plant Council, & Meeting. (2010). Invasive plants of regulatory importance.

Couplan, F. (1998). The Encyclopedia of Edible Plants of North America. Keats Pub.

Cronk, Q. C. B., & Fuller, J. L. (2001). Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems. Earthscan.

Cullina, W. (2000). The New England Wild Flower Society Guide to Growing and Propagating Wildflowers of the United States and Canada. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Cullina, W. (2002). Native Trees, Shrubs, and Vines: A Guide to Using, Growing, and Propagating North American Woody Plants. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Czarapata, E. J. (2005). Invasive plants of the upper Midwest: An illustrated guide to their identification and control. University of Wisconsin Press.

Dark, S. J. (2003). The spatial distribution and biogeography of invasive plants at a regional and local scale in California. University of California.

Dark, S. J. (2004). The biogeography of invasive alien plants in California: An application of GIS and spatial regression analysis. Diversity and Distributions, 10(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2004.00054.x

Davis, M. A., Chew, M. K., Hobbs, R. J., Lugo, A. E., Ewel, J. J., Vermeij, G. J., Brown, J. H., Rosenzweig, M. L., Gardener, M. R., Carroll, S. P., Thompson, K., Pickett, S. T. A., Stromberg, J. C., Tredici, P. D., Suding, K. N., Ehrenfeld, J. G., Philip Grime, J., Mascaro, J., & Briggs, J. C. (2011). Don’t judge species on their origins. Nature, 474(7350), 153–154. https://doi.org/10.1038/474153a

De Waal, L. C. (1994). Ecology and management of invasive riverside plants. Published for the International Centre of Landscape Ecology by Wiley.

DeMeo, R. (2002). Invasive plants of Palau. Palau Natural Resource Council.

Dept. of Conservation & Wellington Conservancy. (2005). Plant me instead: Plants to use in place of common and invasive environmental weeds in the lower North Island. Dept. of Conservation, Wellington Conservancy.

Derickx, L. M., & Antunes, P. M. (2013). A guide to the identification and control of exotic invasive species in Ontario’s hardwood forests. Algoma University.

Di Tomaso, J. M., & Johnson, D. W. (2006). Use of fire as a tool for controlling invasive plants.

Ding, J., Reardon, R., Wu, Y., Zheng, H., & Fu, W. (2006). Biological control of invasive plants through collaboration between China and the United States of America: A perspective. Biological Invasions, 8(7), 1439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-005-5833-2

Ding, J., Wu, Y., Zheng, H., Fu, W., Reardon, R., & Liu, M. (2006). Assessing potential biological control of the invasive plant, tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 16(6), 547–566. https://doi.org/10.1080/09583150500531909

Donlan, C. J., Croll, D. A., & Tershy, B. R. (2003). Islands, Exotic Herbivores, and Invasive Plants: Their Roles in Coastal California Restoration. Restoration Ecology, 11(4), 524–530. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.2003.rec0259.x

Dufour, R. (2000). Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control. ATTRA, National Center for Appropriate Technology. https://attra.ncat.org

Dufour-Dror, J.-M. (2012). Alien invasive plants in Israel. Middle East Nature Conservation Promotion Association.

Duke, J. A. (1992). Handbook of Edible Weeds. CRC Press.

Duke, J. A., & Foster, S. (1999). A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs: Of Eastern and Central North America (Peterson Field Guides) (1st ed.). Houghton Mifflin.

Duke, J. A., & Foster, S. (2014). Peterson Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Ehrenfeld, J. G. (2003). Effects of Exotic Plant Invasions on Soil Nutrient Cycling Processes. Ecosystems, 6(6), 503–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-002-0151-3

Ehrenfeld, J. G. (2008). Exotic invasive species in urban wetlands: Environmental correlates and implications for wetland management. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45(4), 1160–1169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01476.x

Elton, C. S. (2000). The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. University of Chicago Press.

Eschtruth Anne K. & Battles John J. (2009). Assessing the relative importance of disturbance, herbivory, diversity, and propagule pressure in exotic plant invasion. Ecological Monographs, 79(2), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0221.1

Evans, C. W., Bargeron, C. T., Moorhead, D. J., & Douce, G. K. (2008). Invasive plants of Georgia’s forests: Identification and control. University of Georgia.

Evans, G. J., & Bellinder, R. R. (2009). The Potential Use of Vinegar and a Clove Oil Herbicide for Weed Control in Sweet Corn, Potato, and Onion. Weed Technology, 23(1), 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-08-002.1

Evans, G. J., Bellinder, R. R., & Goffinet, M. C. (2009). Herbicidal Effects of Vinegar and a Clove Oil Product on Redroot Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) and Velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Technology, 23(2), 292–299. https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-08-158.1

Evans, G. J., Bellinder, R. R., & Hahn, R. R. (2011). Integration of Vinegar for In-Row Weed Control in Transplanted Bell Pepper and Broccoli. Weed Technology, 25(3), 459–465. https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-D-10-00167.1

Ferguson, D. E., Craig, C. L., & Rocky Mountain Research Station (Fort Collins, Colo. ). (2010). Response of six non-native invasive plant species to wildfires in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Finch, B. (2015). The True Story of Kudzu, the Vine That Never Truly Ate the South. Smithsonian. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/true-story-kudzu-vine-ate-south-180956325/

Foote, L. E., & Jones, S. B. (1989). Native Shrubs and Woody Vines of the Southeast: Landscaping Uses and Identification. Timber Press.

Ford, C. R., Elliott, K. J., Clinton, B. D., Kloeppel, B. D., & Vose, J. M. (2012). Forest dynamics following eastern hemlock mortality in the southern Appalachians. Oikos, 121(4), 523–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19622.x

Forseth, I. N., & Innis, A. F. (2004). Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 23(5), 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680490505150

Gallien, L., & Carboni, M. (2017). The community ecology of invasive species: Where are we and what’s next? Ecography, 40(2), 335–352. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02446

Gavier-Pizarro Gregorio I., Radeloff Volker C., Stewart Susan I., Huebner Cynthia D., & Keuler Nicholas S. (2010). Housing is positively associated with invasive exotic plant species richness in New England, USA. Ecological Applications, 20(7), 1913–1925. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-2168.1

Gelbard, J. L., & Belnap, J. (2003). Roads as Conduits for Exotic Plant Invasions in a Semiarid Landscape. Conservation Biology, 17(2), 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01408.x

Gerber, E., Krebs, C., Murrell, C., Moretti, M., Rocklin, R., & Schaffner, U. (2008). Exotic invasive knotweeds (Fallopia spp.) negatively affect native plant and invertebrate assemblages in European riparian habitats. Biological Conservation, 141(3), 646–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.12.009

Ghelardini, L., Luchi, N., Pecori, F., Pepori, A. L., Danti, R., Della Rocca, G., Capretti, P., Tsopelas, P., & Santini, A. (2017). Ecology of invasive forest pathogens. Biological Invasions, 19(11), 3183–3200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1487-0

Gift, N. (2009). A Weed by Any Other Name: The Virtues of a Messy Lawn, or Learning to Love the Plants We Don’t Plant. Beacon Press.

Glanznig, A., Kessal, O., & McLachlan, K. (2004). Garden plants that are invasive: Plants of national importance : an overview of their legal status, commercial availability and risk status : a report. WWF Australia.

Gonzalez, L., & Christoffersen, B. (2006). The quiet invasion: A guide to invasive plants of the Galveston Bay Area. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality.

Goodrich, Z. (2013). Invasive and Exotic Species Management in Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park: 2011 Summary Report. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Gordon, D. R. (1998). Effects of invasive, non‐indigenous plant species on ecosystem processes: Lessons from Florida. Ecological Applications, 8(4), 975–989. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0975:EOINIP]2.0.CO;2

Gould, A. M. A., & Gorchov, D. L. (2000). Effects of the Exotic Invasive Shrub Lonicera maackii on the Survival and Fecundity of Three Species of Native Annuals. The American Midland Naturalist, 144(1), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031(2000)144[0036:EOTEIS]2.0.CO;2

Gray, A. N., Barndt, K., & Reichard, S. H. (2011). Nonnative invasive plants of Pacific Coast forests: A field guide for identification. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Groombridge, B., & Jenkins, M. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth’s Living Resources in the 21st Century. University of California Press.

Groves, R. H., Lonsdale, M., & Boden, R. (2005). Jumping the garden fence: Invasive garden plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts. WWF-Australia.

Haber, E. (2000). Impact of invasive plants on species and habitats at risk in Canada. http://www.magi.com/%7Eehaber/impact.html

Haragan, P. D. (1991). Weeds of Kentucky and Adjacent States: A Field Guide. University Press of Kentucky.

Harper-Lore, B., & Wilson, M. (2000). Roadside Use of Native Plants (1st ed.). Island Press.

Harrington, T. B., & Reichard, S. H. (2007). Meeting the challenge: Invasive plants in the Pacific Northwest ecosystems. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Havinga, D. J. (2000). Sustaining biodiversity: A strategic plan for managing invasive plants in southern Ontario. Office of the City Forester, City of Toronto, Parks and Recreation.

Heaton, E. A., Dohleman, F. G., & Long, S. P. (2008). Meeting US biofuel goals with less land: The potential of Miscanthus. Global Change Biology, 14(9), 2000–2014. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01662.x

Hebert, F., & Lyons, E. (2011). What is the Future for Corn Gluten Meal Based Products for Controlling Weeds? Sports Turf Manager, 24(1). http://hdl.handle.net/10214/9870

Hébert, M. (2001). Strategic plan for noxious and invasive plants management in Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Heisey, R. M. (1990). Evidence for allelopathy by tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 16(6), 2039–2055. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01020515

Heisey, R. M. (1996). Identification of an Allelopathic Compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and Characterization of its Herbicidal Activity. American Journal of Botany, 83(2), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.2307/2445938

Henderson, L. (2001). Alien weeds and invasive plants: A complete guide to declared weeds and invaders in South Africa, including another 36 species invasive in that region. Plant Protection Research Institute.

Henderson, L. (2002). Invasive aquatic plants. ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute.

Hetherington, J. K. (2012). Ecological rehabilitation, an approach to assisting ecosystems modified by invasive plants: Applied and validated via Kaitorete Spit, a case study [Doctorate]. Univeristy of Otago.

Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A., & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World (Revised). Firefly Books.

Hinz, H. L., & Schwarzlaender, M. (2004). Comparing Invasive Plants from Their Native and Exotic Range: What Can We Learn for Biological Control? Weed Technology, 18(sp1), 1533–1541. https://doi.org/10.1614/0890-037X(2004)018[1533:CIPFTN]2.0.CO;2

Hoddle, M. S. (2004). Restoring Balance: Using Exotic Species to Control Invasive Exotic Species. Conservation Biology, 18(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00249.x

Hoffman, R. M., & Kearns, K. (1997). Wisconsin manual of control recommendations for ecologically invasive plants. Bureau of Endangered Resources, Dept. of Natural Resources.

Holm, L., Doll, J., Holm, E., Pancho, J. V., & Herberger, J. P. (1997). World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. Wiley.

Holm, L. G. (1991). The World’s Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology (Reprint ed.). Krieger.

Home. (2016). The Plant List. http://www.theplantlist.org/

Hoots, D., & Baldwin, J. (1996). Kudzu, the Vine to Love or Hate. Suntop Press.

Howe, K. M. (2008). A field guide to invasive plants of the Midwest. Midwest Invasive Plants Network.

Huebner, C. D., Olson, C., & Smith, H. C. (2005). Invasive plants field and reference guide: An ecological perspective of plant invaders of forests and woodlands. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: Eastern Region: Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry.

Hulina, N., & Đumija, L. (1999). Ability of Reynoutria japonica Houtt. (Polygonaceae) to accumulate heavy metals. Periodicum Biologorum, 101(3), 233–235.

Jones, R., Griffith, G. R., & Vere, D. T. (2006). An economic evaluation of the research benefits and returns on investment in the Invasive Plants Cooperative Research Centre. CRC for Australian Weed Management.

Kang, Y., Łuczaj, Ł., Ye, S., Zhang, S., & Kang, J. (2012). Wild food plants and wild edible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, central China): Herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 81(4), 405–413.

Kaufman, S. R., & Kaufman, W. (2007). Invasive Plants. Stackpole Books.

Kay, S. H., Lewis, W. M., & Langeland, K. A. (1995). Integrated Management of Multiflora Rose in North Carolina. North Carolina Cooperative Extension.

Keane, R. M., & Crawley, M. J. (2002). Exotic plant invasions and the enemy release hypothesis. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(4), 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02499-0

Keller, R. P., Geist, J., Jeschke, J. M., & Kühn, I. (n.d.). Invasive species in Europe: Ecology, status, and policy. Environmental Sciences Europe, 23(1), 23.

Keller, R. P., Lodge, D. M., Lewis, M. A., & Shogren, J. F. (Eds.). (2009). Bioeconomics of Invasive Species: Integrating Ecology, Economics, Policy, and Management. Oxford University Press.

Kelley, T. J. (2016, May 23). Pittsburgh Tries to Eat Its Way Through a Savage Weed. Wall Street Journal. http://www.wsj.com/articles/pittsburgh-tries-to-eat-its-way-through-a-savage-weed-1464013237

Keung, W. M., & Vallee, B. L. (1998). Kudzu root: An ancient chinese source of modern antidipsotropic agents. Phytochemistry, 47(4), 499–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00723-1

Khanna, M., Dhungana, B., & Clifton-Brown, J. (2008). Costs of producing miscanthus and switchgrass for bioenergy in Illinois. Biomass and Bioenergy, 32(6), 482–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.11.003

Klein, B. (2004). Making a list: Prevention strategies for invasive plants in the Great Lakes states. Environmental Law Institute.

Kuhman, T. R., Pearson, S. M., & Turner, M. G. (2010). Effects of land-use history and the contemporary landscape on non-native plant invasion at local and regional scales in the forest-dominated southern Appalachians. Landscape Ecology, 25(9), 1433–1445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-010-9500-3

Lambdin, P. L., & Grant, J. F. (2000). Assessment of exotic and invasive plants along roadways in Tennessee. Tennessee Dept. of Transportation.

Langeland, K. A. (1998). Help protect Florida’s natural areas from non-native invasive plants. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida.

Lankau, R. A. (2011). Resistance and recovery of soil microbial communities in the face of Alliaria petiolata invasions. New Phytologist, 189(2), 536–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03481.x

Lavoie, C., Jean, M., Delisle, F., & Létourneau, G. (2003). Exotic plant species of the St Lawrence River wetlands: A spatial and historical analysis. Journal of Biogeography, 30(4), 537–549. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00854.x

Lawrence, J. G., Colwell, A., & Sexton, O. J. (1991). The Ecological Impact of Allelopathy in Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae). American Journal of Botany, 78(7), 948–958. https://doi.org/10.2307/2445173

Lecerf, A. (2007). Stream ecosystems respond to riparian invasion by Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 64, 1273–1283.

Lemke, D., Hulme, P. E., Brown, J. A., & Tadesse, W. (2011). Distribution modelling of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) invasion in the Cumberland Plateau and Mountain Region, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 262(2), 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.03.014

Leskey, T. C., & Nielsen, A. L. (2018). Impact of the Invasive Brown Marmorated Stink Bug in North America and Europe: History, Biology, Ecology, and Management. Annual Review of Entomology, 63(1), 599–618. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043226

Louda, S. M., Kendall, D., Connor, J., & Simberloff, D. (1997). Ecological Effects of an Insect Introduced for the Biological Control of Weeds. Science, 277(5329), 1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5329.1088

Lukas, S. E., Penetar, D., Berko, J., Vicens, L., Palmer, C., Mallya, G., Macklin, E. A., & Lee, D. Y.-W. (2005). An Extract of the Chinese Herbal Root Kudzu Reduces Alcohol Drinking by Heavy Drinkers in a Naturalistic Setting. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(5), 756–762. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ALC.0000163499.64347.92

Mack, M. C., D’Antonio, C. M., & Ley, R. E. (2001). Alteration of ecosystem nitrogen dynamics by exotic plants: A case study of c4 grasses in hawaii. Ecological Applications, 11(5), 1323–1335. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[1323:AOENDB]2.0.CO;2

Mack, R. N. (2003). Plant Naturalizations and Invasions in the Eastern United States: 1634-1860. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 90(1), 77–90.

MacKinnon, D. K., Randall, C. B., Sing, S. E., Piper, G. L., Hansen, R. W., Clerck-Floate, R. D., & Swing, L. M. (2005). Biology and biological control of Dalmatian and yellow toadflax. USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Maine Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program. (2007). Maine field guide to invasive aquatic plants and their common native look alikes. http://www.mainevolunteerlakemonitors.org/mciap/FieldGuide.pdf

Mann, C. C. (2006). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (1ST ed.). Vintage.

Mann, C. C. (2011). 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Knopf.

Markin, G. P. (1991). Insect survey of potential biological control agents of Myrica faya in the Azores and Madeira Islands, Portugal, 1988. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Marler, T. E. (2020). Three Invasive Tree Species Change Soil Chemistry in Guam Forests. Forests, 11(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030279

Martin, P. (2003). Killing us softly: Australia’s green stalkers : a call to action on invasive plants, and a way forward. CRC for Australian Weed Management.

May, S. (2007). Invasive aquatic and wetland plants. Chelsea House.

McCarthy, B. C., & Hanson, S. L. (1998). An Assessment of the Allelopathic Potential of the Invasive Weed Alliaria petiolata (Brassicaceae). Castanea, 63(1), 68–73.

Mellichamp, L., & Stuart, W. (2014). Native Plants of the Southeast: A Comprehensive Guide to the Best 460 Species for the Garden. Timber Press.

Messing, R. H., & Wright, M. G. (2006). Biological control of invasive species: Solution or pollution? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 4(3), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2006)004[0132:BCOISS]2.0.CO;2

Miller, J. H. (2007). Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern Forests: A Field Guide for Identification and Control (Rev.). U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Miller, J. H., Manning, S. T., & Enloe, S. F. (2010). A Management Guide for Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Monaco, T. A., & Sheley, R. L. (2012). Invasive plant ecology and management: Linking processes to practice. CABI.

Mooney, H. A. (Ed.). (2005). Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis. Island Press.

Moore, D. (2006). The Spatial Distribution of Japanese Knotweed (F Japonica) in the Crum Woods of Swathmore College.

Moore, K., & Hyland, T. (2002). A plague of plants: Controlling invasive plants in Santa Cruz County. Wildlands Restoration Team.

Morisette, J. T., Jarnevich, C. S., Ullah, A., Cai, W., Pedelty, J. A., Gentle James E., Stohlgren Thomas J., & Schnase John L. (2006). A tamarisk habitat suitability map for the continental United States. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 4(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2006)004[0012:ATHSMF]2.0.CO;2

Morris, J. (2009). From Ravage to Resource: Adding Value in the Control of Invasive Plants. BookSurge Publishing.

Murray, D. P. (2009). Spatial Distribution of Four Exotic Plants in Relation to Physical Environmental Factors with Analysis using GIS [Thesis, Virginia Tech]. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/31281

Myers, J. H. (with Bazely, D.). (2003). Ecology and Control of Introduced Plants. Cambridge University Press.

Navie, S. C., & Adkins, S. (2008). Environmental weeds of Australia an interactive identification and information resource for over 1000 invasive plants. The University of Queensland.

Nuñez, M. A., Chiuffo, M. C., Torres, A., Paul, T., Dimarco, R. D., Raal, P., Policelli, N., Moyano, J., García, R. A., van Wilgen, B. W., Pauchard, A., & Richardson, D. M. (2017). Ecology and management of invasive Pinaceae around the world: Progress and challenges. Biological Invasions, 19(11), 3099–3120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1483-4

Nuñez, M. A., Kuebbing, S., Dimarco, R. D., & Simberloff, D. (2012). Invasive Species: To eat or not to eat, that is the question. Conservation Letters, 5(5), 334–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00250.x

Oklahoma Invasive Plant Council. (2010). Oklahoma’s problem species gallery of some of the invasive species troubling Oklahoma today: Comprehensive list of invasive plants of Oklahoma.

Orion, T. (with Holmgren, D.). (2015). Beyond the War on Invasive Species: A Permaculture Approach to Ecosystem Restoration. Chelsea Green Publishing.

Otfinowski, R. (2008). Patterns and processes of exotic plant invasions in Riding Mountain National Park, Manitoba, Canada [University of Manitoba]. http://hdl.handle.net/1993/3065

Pearce, F. (2015). The New Wild: Why Invasive Species Will Be Nature’s Salvation. Beacon Press.

Pearson, D. E., & Callaway, R. M. (2003). Indirect effects of host-specific biological control agents. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18(9), 456–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00188-5

Penetar, D. M., Toto, L. H., Lee, D. Y.-W., & Lukas, S. E. (2015). A single dose of kudzu extract reduces alcohol consumption in a binge drinking paradigm. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 153, 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.025

Peterson, L. (with Peterson, R. T.). (1978). A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin.

Pichtel, J., Kuroiwa, K., & Sawyerr, H. T. (2000). Distribution of Pb, Cd and Ba in soils and plants of two contaminated sites. Environmental Pollution, 110(1), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(99)00272-9

Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., & Morrison, D. (2005). Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics, 52(3), 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002

Poland, T. M., Patel-Weynand, T., Finch, D. M., Miniat, C. F., Hayes, D. C., & Lopez, V. M. (Eds.). (2021). Invasive Species in Forests and Rangelands of the United States: A Comprehensive Science Synthesis for the United States Forest Sector. Springer.

Poorter, M. de. (2005). The ISSG Global Invasive Species Database and Other Aspects of an Early Warning System. In Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis (pp. 59–83). Island Press.

Prati, D., & Bossdorf, O. (2004). Allelopathic inhibition of germination by Alliaria petiolata (Brassicaceae). American Journal of Botany, 91(2), 285–288. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.2.285

Pyšek, P., Richardson, D. M., Rejmánek, M., Webster, G. L., Williamson, M., Kirschner, J., Pysek, P., & Rejmanek, M. (2004). Alien Plants in Checklists and Floras: Towards Better Communication between Taxonomists and Ecologists. Taxon, 53(1), 131. https://doi.org/10.2307/4135498

Radford, A. E. B., Ahles, H., & Bell, C. R. (1968). Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press.

Radosevich, S. R., Holt, J. S., & Ghersa, C. (2007). Ecology of Weeds and Invasive Plants: Relationship to Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (3rd ed). Wiley-Interscience.

Rahel, F. J., & Olden, J. D. (2008). Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species. Conservation Biology, 22(3), 521–533. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00950.x

Ramey, V. (2005). Invasive and other non-native plants found in public waters and conservation lands of Florida and the Southeastern United States: A recognition guide for 94 non-native plants targeted for control by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. University of Florida, IFAS Extension.

Randall, J. M., & Marinelli, J. (1996). Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden.

Reddy, G. V. P. (2011). Survey of invasive plants on Guam and identification of the 20 most widespread. Micronesica, 41(2), 263–274.

Reichard, S. H., & White, P. (2001). Horticulture as a Pathway of Invasive Plant Introductions in the United States: Most invasive plants have been introduced for horticultural use by nurseries, botanical gardens, and individuals. BioScience, 51(2), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0103:HAAPOI]2.0.CO;2

Rejmanek, M. (2005). Ecology of Invasive Plants: State of the Art (H. A. Mooney, Ed.; pp. 104–161). Island Press.

Rejmánek, M., & Randall, J. M. (1994). Invasive Alien Plants in California: 1993 Summary and Comparison with other areas in North America. Madroño, 41(3), 161–177.

Rens, E. N. (2003). Geographical analysis of the distribution and spread of invasive plants in the Gardiner Basin, Montana. Montana State University.

Robbins, W. W., Bellue, M. K., & Ball, W. S. (1970). Weeds of California. Documents & Publications/State of CA.

Rodgers, V. L., Stinson, K. A., & Finzi, A. C. (2008). Ready or Not, Garlic Mustard Is Moving In: Alliaria petiolata as a Member of Eastern North American Forests. BioScience, 58(5), 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1641/B580510

Ross, M. A., & Lembi, C. A. (2009). Applied weed science: Including the ecology and management of invasive plants. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Royer, F., & Dickinson, R. (1999). Weeds of the Northern U.S. and Canada. University of Alberta Press.

Sarver, M. (2008). Mistaken identity?: Invasive plants and their native look-alikes: An identification guide for the Mid-Atlantic. Delaware Dept. Agriculture.

Schat, H., & Verkleij, J. A. C. (1998). Biological Interactions: The Role for Non-Woody Plants in Phytorestoration: Possibilities to Exploit Adaptive Heavy Metal Tolerance. In J. Vangronsveld & S. D. Cunningham (Eds.), Metal-Contaminated Soils: In Situ Inactivation and Phytorestoration. Springer.

Scott, T., L. (2010). Invasive Plant Medicine: The Ecological Benefits and Healing Abilities of Invasives. Healing Arts Press.

Service, N. P. (2013a). Invasive Exotic Plant Monitoring at George Washington Carver National Monument: Year 1. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Service, N. P. (2013b). Invasive Exotic Plant Monitoring at Homestead National Monument of America: Year 1. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Service, N. P. (2013c). Invasive Exotic Plant Monitoring in Colorado National Monument: 2011 Field Season. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Shebek, J., & Rindone, J. P. (2000). A Pilot Study Exploring The Effect of Kudzu Root on the Drinking Habits of Patients with Chronic Alcoholism. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 6(1), 45–48. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2000.6.45

Shephard, M. (2007). Selected invasive plants of Alaska. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Alaska Region.

Sher, A., & Quigley, M. F. (2013). Tamarix: A case study of ecological change in the American West. Oxford University Press.

Sherley, G. (2000). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.

Shibu, J. (2013). Invasive plant ecology.

Shurtleff, W., & Aoyagi, A. (1985). The Book of Kudzu: A Culinary & Healing Guide. Avery Pub. Group.

Simberloff, D., Schmitz, D. C., & Brown, T. C. (1997). Strangers in paradise: Impact and management of nonindigenous species in Florida. Island Press.

Simberloff, D., & Stiling, P. (1996). How Risky is Biological Control? Ecology, 77(7), 1965–1974. https://doi.org/10.2307/2265693

Skrine, E. (2005). Pacific Northwest Region invasive plant program preventing and managing invasive plants record of decision: Final environmental impact statement, Volume I & II Volume I & II. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region.

Smith, C. (2008). Invasive exotic plants of North Carolina. N.C. Dept. of Transportation.

Smith, M. D., & Knapp, A. K. (2001). Physiological and Morphological Traits of Exotic, Invasive Exotic, and Native Plant Species in Tallgrass Prairie. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 162(4), 785–792. https://doi.org/10.1086/320774

Society, X. (2016). 100 Plants to Feed the Bees: Provide a Healthy Habitat to Help Pollinators Thrive. Storey Publishing, LLC.

Somodi, I., Čarni, A., Ribeiro, D., & Podobnikar, T. (2012). Recognition of the invasive species Robinia pseudacacia from combined remote sensing and GIS sources. Biological Conservation, 150(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.02.014

Stace, C. A., & Crawley, M. J. (2015). Alien plants.

Staples, G., & Cowie, R. H. (2001). Hawai`i’s invasive species: A guide to invasive plants and animals in the Hawaiian Islands. Mutual Pub.

Stone, C. P. (1993). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawaii: Management and Research (J. T. Tunison & C. W. Smith, Eds.). Univ of Hawaii Pr.

Strauss, S. Y., Webb, C. O., & Salamin, N. (2006). Exotic taxa less related to native species are more invasive. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(15), 5841–5845. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0508073103

Stromberg, J. C., Chew, M. K., Nagler, P. L., & Glenn, E. P. (2009). Changing Perceptions of Change: The Role of Scientists in Tamarix and River Management. Restoration Ecology, 17(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00514.x

Sugihara, N. G., Wagtendonk, J. W. van, Shaffer, K. E., Thode, A. E., & Fites-Kaufman, J. (2006). Fire in California’s Ecosystems. University of California Press.

Tennessee Valley Authority. (1998). Landscaping with Native Shrubs in Utility Rights-of-Way: A Guide to Selecting Native Shrubs for Rights-of-Way Naturalization in the Tennessee Valley. Environmental Research & Services, Tenn. Valley Authority.

Thomas, K. A., & Guertin, P. (2007). Southwest Exotic Mapping Program 2007 occurrence summary and maps of select invasive, non-native plants in Arizona. U.S. Geological Survey.

Thuiller, W., Richardson, D. M., & Midgley, G. F. (2007). Will Climate Change Promote Alien Plant Invasions? In W. Nentwig (Ed.), Biological Invasions (pp. 197–211). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-36920-2_12

Trails and Waterways Division. (2002). Minnesota invasive non-native terrestrial plants: An identification guide for resource managers. Trails and Waterways Division, Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources.

Trebitz, A. S., & Taylor, D. L. (2007). Exotic and Invasive Aquatic Plants in Great Lakes Coastal Wetlands: Distribution and Relation to Watershed Land Use and Plant Richness and Cover. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(4), 705–721. https://doi.org/10.3394/0380-1330(2007)33[705:EAIAPI]2.0.CO;2

Tungmunnithum, D., Intharuksa, A., & Sasaki, Y. (2020). A Promising View of Kudzu Plant, Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep: Flavonoid Phytochemical Compounds, Taxonomic Data, Traditional Uses and Potential Biological Activities for Future Cosmetic Application. Cosmetics, 7(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics7010012

United States. (1998). Stemming the Invasive Tide Forest Service Strategy for Noxious and Nonnative Invasive Plant Management. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service.

U.S. Dept of Interior. (1998). Pulling Together: National Strategy for Invasive Plant Management. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.

Van Driesche, R. (2002). Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States. USDA, Forest Service, FHTET.

Vaughn, S. F., & Berhow, M. A. (1999). Allelochemicals Isolated from Tissues of the Invasive Weed Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 25(11), 2495–2504. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020874124645

Vilà, M., Espinar, J. L., Hejda, M., Hulme, P. E., Jarošík, V., Maron, J. L., Pergl, J., Schaffner, U., Sun, Y., & Pyšek, P. (2011). Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: A meta-analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecology Letters, 14(7), 702–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01628.x

Wald, D. M., Nelson, K. A., Gawel, A. M., & Rogers, H. S. (2019). The role of trust in public attitudes toward invasive species management on Guam: A case study. Journal of Environmental Management, 229, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.047

Wang, H.-H., Wonkka, C. L., Grant, W. E., & Rogers, W. E. (2012). Potential Range Expansion of Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) in Southern U.S. Forestlands. Forests, 3(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/f3030573

Wang, L., Silván-Cárdenas, J. L., Yang, J., & Frazier, A. E. (2013). Invasive Saltcedar (Tamarisk spp.) Distribution Mapping Using Multiresolution Remote Sensing Imagery. The Professional Geographer, 65(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2012.679440

Weatherbee, P. B., & Somers, P. (1998). A guide to invasive plants in Massachusetts. Division of Fisheries & Wildlife.

Weathers, S. A., & Cheeke, P. R. (1998). Field Guide to Plants Poisonous to Livestock: Western U.S. Rosebud Press.

Weber, E. (2003). Invasive Plant Species of the World: A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Pub.

Weber, E. (2017). Invasive Plant Species of the World: A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds (2 edition). CABI.

Weed Science Society of America. (2007). List of North American Weeds. Weed Science Society of America. http://www.wssa.net/Weeds/ID/WeedNames/namesearch.php

Westbrooks, R. G. (1998). Invasive Plants: Changing the Landscape of America: Fact Book. Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds.

Western North Carolina Tomorrow. (2000). Exotic Pest Plants & Their Effects on Natural Areas. Western North Carolina Tomorrow.

White, D. J., Haber, E., & Keddy, C. (1993). Invasive plants of natural habitats in Canada: An integrated review of wetland and upland species and legislation governing their control. North American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada), Canadian Museum of Nature.

White, M. R. (2008). Field guide to noxious and invasive weeds: Known to occur or are potentially occurring on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. United States Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Region.

White, M. R. (2011). Invasive plants and weeds of the national forests and grasslands of the southwestern region. USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests.

Wikeem, B. M. (2006). Control of invasive plants on Crown land in British Columbia. Forest Practices Board.

Willems, L. E. (2010). Wildfires, fuels and invasive plants. Nova Sciences. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=358326

Williams, A., Rogers, J. J., & Howe, N. (2013). Invasive Plant Species Early Detection in the San Francisco Bay Area Network. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Winberry, J. J., & Jones, D. M. (1973). Rise and Decline of the “Miracle Vine”: Kudzu in the Southern Landscape. Southeastern Geographer, 13(2), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1353/sgo.1973.0004

Winston, R., Schwarzländer, M., Hinz, H. L., Day, M. D., Cock, M. J. W., Julien, M. H., United States, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, University of Idaho, & Extension. (2014). Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds. http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo56097

Wisconsin Bureau of Endangered Resources. (2010). Common terrestrial invasive plants in WI. Bureau of Endangered Resources and Division of Forestry, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

Wixted, K. L., & McGraw, J. B. (2010). Competitive and allelopathic effects of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) on American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). Plant Ecology, 208(2), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-009-9711-3

Wolkovich, E. M., & Cleland, E. E. (2011). The phenology of plant invasions: A community ecology perspective. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(5), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1890/100033

Zedler, J. (2004). Causes and Consequences of Invasive Plants in Wetlands: Opportunities, Opportunists, and Outcomes. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 23(5), 431–452.

Zeng, R. S., Mallik, A. U., & Luo, S. (Eds.). (2008). Allelopathy in Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry. Springer.

Zheng, H. (2005). Invasive plants established in the United States that are found in Asia and their associated natural enemies. Vol 2. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team.

Ziska, L. H., Blumenthal, D. M., Runion, G. B., Hunt, E. R., & Diaz-Soltero, H. (2011). Invasive species and climate change: An agronomic perspective. Climatic Change, 105(1), 13–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9879-5

 

comments powered by Disqus