2022 Plant Talk 10: Woody Mostly Temperate Ethnobotany

July 31, 2022

Plant Talk 10: Temperate Woody Plants

Hello plant enthusiasts! This is a class about one of my favorite botany subjects ever! A big passion for me is to ideally have a name for every tree i see… This year a particular focus of mine is to learn all the native tree names in Dutch where my mother hails from and lives.

What’s Blooming

Some plants blooming currently around southern Appalachia:

Angelica (Angelica spp.), Asian Windflower (Anemone spp.), Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), Bee Balm (Monarda spp.), Bluebeard (Caryopteris spp.), Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), Cardinal Flower (Lobelia cardinalis), Chickory (Cichorium intybus), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Corn (Zea mays), Compass Plant (Silphium spp.), Crown Vetch (Securigera varia syn Coronilla v.), Culver’s Root (Veronicastrum virginicum), Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica), Evening Primrose (Oenothera spp.), Goldenrod (Solidago spp.), Indian Plantain/Rattlesnake Root/White Lettuce (Prenanthes spp. syn Nabalus), Indian Tobacco (Lobelia inflata), Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum syn. Reynoutria japonica), Jewelweed (Impatiens spp.), Joe Pye Weed (Eutrochium spp.), Leaf Cup (Polymnia spp.), Marigolds (Tagetes spp.), Morninglory (Convolvulus spp.), Nasturtium (Tropaeolum spp.), Passionflower (Passiflora spp.), Phlox spp. Pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), Skullcaps (Scutellaria spp.), Sochane (Rudbeckia laciniata), Spider Plant (Cleome sp.), Japanese Spirea (Spiraea japonica), Spurges (Euphorbia spp.), St John’s Worts (Hypericum spp.), Sunflowers (Helianthus spp.), Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), Turk’s Cap Lily (Lilium superbum), White Alder (Clethra spp.), Wild Carrot (Daucus carota), Wild Lettuce (Lactuca spp.), Wingstem (Verbesina spp. syn Actinomeris), and Zinnia spp.

Here is a link to a photo album of many of the plants above and those mentioned below.
https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.10158794032636584&type=3

Major Tree/Woody Plant Families Occurring around Appalachia and other Temperate Places

The focus of the current class is woody plants. The study of trees is called dendrology (Hardin et al., 2001). Arboriculture is a term used for the cultivation and caretaking of trees (Association, n.d.; Emeritus et al., 2003; Harris et al., 1998; Shigo, 1991).

Silviculture is a rather academic term and practice that deals with the raising of trees often times for lumber purposes (Ashton & Kelty, 2018; Nyland et al., 2016; Puettmann, 2008; D. M. Smith et al., 1996; G. Williams, 1979).

Forest Management is another term used (Bettinger et al., 2017; L. S. Davis et al., 2005; Franklin et al., 2018; Harshaw et al., 2007). Management of forest soils in particular is the subject of at least one publication (Binkley & Fisher, 2019).

Some trees like Oaks and Pines have their own special publications on their silvicultual practices included in the following (Johnson et al., 2010; Jose et al., 2007). A recent Scientific American article and a related one in the New Phytologist describes how Oaks came to dominate the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere in particular (Kremer & Hipp, 2020). Here is another interesting article that covers the quest to count the number of trees in the world.

Currently aware of less resources for the neotropics but here are two references for Trinidad and Tobago (Marshall, 1939; Marshall et al., 1930). Costa Rica also has a number of good resources (Delgado, 1997; Jiménez Madrigal, 2002; Madrigal, 2010).

Work in Jamaica over the last six years has led me to more resources for forests and trees there than most locales of the world (K. C. St. E. Campbell, 2010; M. A. McDonald et al., 2003; Morrison et al., 1996; Newton & Healey, 1989; Parker, 2003; Sander & Vandebroek, 2016; Swabey, 1939; Tanner, 1977, 1980, 1982; Tanner et al., 1990).

Forest Management publications are also available for the neotropics in general as well (Alvarado & Fernando, 2013; CATIE, 1998; Herrera & Chaverri, 2006; Liegel et al., 1987; Zarin et al., 2004).

A colleague of mine Dr. Alison Ormsby has also done quite a bit of research around the world in places like Africa, Central/South America and India regarding the local management of sacred groves of trees (Acharya & Ormsby, 2017; A. Ormsby, 2012, 2013; A. A. Ormsby, 2011; A. A. Ormsby & Ismail, 2015; Pradhan et al., 2018).

Sacred groves often function as defacto sites of conservation as well as spiritual connection all over the world (Altman, 2000; Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006; Handley, 2013; Klepeis et al., 2016; Liljeblad & Verschuuren, 2018; Pungetti et al., 2012; Sarmiento & Hitchner, 2017; Tiwari et al., 1998; Verschuuren & Furuta, 2016).

A number of publications are available geared more towards landowners while often taking wider management concerns into account (Beattie & Levine, 1993; Hansen et al., 2011; Hilts & Mitchell, 2009; McLeod & Ackerman-Leist, 2015; Shirley & Graves, 1967; VanBrakle, 2016). The state of North Carolina offers great prices through their forestry program for native trees available to purchase by landowners. The state of Missouri has a great program as well. What kind of resources does your state or country offer?

Many people are aware of the tragedy of industrial forestry often employing the technique of clearcutting (Devall, 1993; Jensen & Draffan, 2003; Lansky, 1992). Here are a few resources that speak to the human aspects of deforestation in the tropics (Ishikawa & Soda, 2019; Palm Oil and Tropical Deforestation, n.d.; Sponsel et al., 1996; Zarin et al., 2004). Palm Oil deforestation in Indonesia and Central America is particularly worrying and also the source of human rights abuses at least in the case of Indonesia. Alternatives for sustainable management of tropical forests are an important subject for discussion (Ford & Nigh, 2015; Southgate, 1998; Zarin et al., 2004). A book that has gotten a lot of popular press is The Overstory which is a novel portraying the fight to preserve forests in North America (Powers, 2018). Julia Butterfly Hill (2001) wrote of her time up in a Redwood tree aiming to defend the last vestiges of that once great forest as well. Subsequently, she became the inspiration for a host of other writers (Cook et al., 2017; Faranda, 2013; FitzGerald, 2002; Kostecki-Shaw, 2015; Lynette, 2007). A 2021 report from Botanic Gardens Conservation International states that at least one in three tree species face extinction in the wild!

Of course there are many other resources regarding these issues. Which ones are you aware of or can you find?

Much of the information below comes from my graduate research on the plants of Appalachia like many of the classes this year. However, it has since been expanded to cover information about woody plants from other temperate areas and a bit about subtropical/tropical areas as well. Here are featured 22 of the approximately one hundred and sixty plant families occurring in the Blue Ridge part of Appalachia (Wofford, 1989). The focus is on families that include a majority of woody species. Families are listed here in monographs because they have members representing a multitude of uses across a broad spectrum of topics. All families are listed alphabetically by botanical name. A common name corresponding to the typic genus for the family accompanies the title. In the case of the Aquifoliaceae and Caprifoliaceae there is no corresponding typic genus known and another common name has been chosen.

Due to time constraints some notable families that are useful or make up a small part of the Appalachian woody flora have been excluded until now. Very excited to have added most of the missing woody families of the region include the Bignoniaceae, Cannabaceae, Santalaceae, Simaroubaceae, Staphyleaceae, Styracaceae and Symplocaceae families. Next year the aim is to finish up any missing woody families such as the more recently redefined Altingiaceae, Cannabaceae and Paulowniaceae. The references consulted for the statistics of family geographic representation include Flowering Plant Families of the World (Heywood, Brummitt, Culham, & Seberg, 2007), Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Blue Ridge (Wofford, 1989) and a Synonynized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the United States, Canada and Greenland (J. T. Kartesz, 1994). The work by the Karteszs also covers Puerto Rico, Hawaii and the Virgin islands. Heywood et al. split some families up that are considered as larger in the older sources of Wofford and Kartesz. Notations are included in the discussion of taxonomy and other related literature for individual families.

Several other books might be worth referencing for those interested in plant family patterns. (Byng, 2014; Castner, 2004; Evert et al., 2012; W. S. Judd et al., 2015; Zomlefer, 1994). Newer references i have come across more recently include (Bayton & Maughan, 2017; Byng, 2014; Mabberley, 2017; Mauseth, 2019; Simpson, 2010; Soltis et al., 2018; Spichiger et al., 2004; The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2016; Utteridge & Bramley, 2016; Weakley, 2020; Woodland, 2009). The Plant List or harder to use but more updated World Flora Online are excellent sources of online taxonomy especially at the species level.

The role of trees is something important to consider. Pragmatically trees provide carbon sequestration, building materials, food, habitat, textiles, shade, paper, water filtration and many more services as well. However, on an energetic note, certain trees have given me more solace in certain ways than any person ever will. Trees have played many other spiritual and intangible roles in society as well (Altman, 2000; Bird, 2009; Caldecott, 1993; Hageneder, 2005; Hugo, 2011; Rashford, 1985, 1988; Wells, 2010).

Old growth forests in particular tend to very inspiring (Bash, 2002; Chazdon & Coe, 1999; M. B. Davis et al., 1996; Kelly & Braasch, 1988; Maloof, 2011, 2016; Rapp, 2002; Valentine, 2011). Some of my favorites include Joyce Kilmer and those of the Smoky Mountains National Park as well as the Redwoods and Giant Sequoias National Parks. Really old cultivated trees can be very inspiring as well and can be seen in various ways at world famous collections such as Kew Gardens, Utrecht Botanical Garden, the Von Gimborn Arboretum and the Harvard Arboretum.

The history of trees in general is rather fascinating as well (Elias, 1980; Peattie, 2013; Thomas, 2014; Wells, 2010).

We have a few great resources for the role of woody plants in supporting wildlife in the USA (Bentrup et al., 2011; Huegel, 1995; Martin et al., 1961; McComb, 2015; J. H. Miller & Miller, 2005; Weeks et al., 2010; Weeks & Weeks, 2012).

There is also another good framing of this subject from a permaculture perspective (Jacke & Toensmeier, 2005a, 2005b). The difference between native species and exotic ones in this regard can be profound (Darke & Tallamy, 2014; Tallamy, 2009). Several researchers have turned attention to the question of exotic versus native distribution by birds as well (Gosper et al., 2005; S. B. Smith et al., 2013; White & Stiles, 1992). Oaks and Cherries are some real winners in particular in regards to supporting wildlife in general.

Many microbial associations are supported by various trees as well. Forestry Professor Suzanne Simard at the University of British Columbia has done a lot to highlight the ways trees communicate to each other in part mediated by microbial connections. European forester Peter Wohllenben (2016) is another recent popular researcher on this subject. A recent study even looked at this “wood wide web” connection on a global level (Steidinger et al., 2019). Author and orchardist Michael Phillips speaks to this from a farmer perspective as well (M. Phillips, 2017). Elaine Ingham is world famous for her work on the concept of the Soil Food Web.

Many people think of Native Americans as passive in their influence on the forest. However, a literature has developed that shows a much more active role in managing arboreal ecosystems (Abrams & Nowacki, 2008; C. G. Armstrong et al., 2018; C. G. D. Armstrong, 2017; Black et al., 2006; Delcourt et al., 1998; Delcourt & Delcourt, 1998; Lepofsky et al., 2017; McEwan et al., 2011; Stewart, 2009; Turner et al., 2013). Ethnobiologist Robin Wall Kimmerer has written poignantly about the intereaction between the Indigenous groups of North America and plants and has a great piece about Juneberry (Amelanchier) in particular (Fries & Kimmerer, 2018; Kimmerer, 2015).

Gingko biloba is a popular addition to cityscapes as is the London Plane tree (Platanus x acerifolia). Elms were a historical favorite that was unfortunately afflicted by the Dutch Elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi) a few decades ago and lost to the cityscape for that reason (Leland, 2005). Public Radio host Diane Rehm hosted a great show on Urban Trees.

Tree planting and care is an art that may take much study to master (E. Gilman, 2001; Watson, 1994, 2005). Selecting the right tree for the landscape can be aided by a number of good resources as well (Dirr, 1997, 1998, 2011; Dirr & Heuser, 2011; Dirr & Warren, 2019; Flint, 1997; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998). One aspect that people sometimes select for is variegation (Houtman, 2004). DAVEY is an operation with over 130 years of experience in arboriculture. The Forest Service has sponsored some great publications about tree seeds and biology (Bonner & Karrfalt, 2008; Young & Young, 1992).

Trees in urban environments have very particular needs and constraints (E. F. Gilman, 1997; Jonnes, 2016; E. G. McPherson et al., 1997; R. W. Miller, 2007; Watson, 1998).

A robust literature exists that documents the benefits and ecosystems services of urban forests (Alvey, 2006; Dwyer et al., 2000; Escobedo & Nowak, 2009; Gregory McPherson, 1992; McHale et al., 2007; E. G. McPherson et al., 1997; E. G. McPherson & Simpson, 1999, 2003; G. McPherson et al., 2005; G. E. McPherson et al., 1994; Nowak et al., 2006, 2008, 2018; Nowak & Crane, 2000; Threlfall & Kendal, 2018; Zefferman et al., 2018).

Forest schools both in rural and urban areas have been an area of exploration for several authors as well (Bailie et al., 2015; Casey et al., 2020; Doyle, 2012; Walmsley, 2020; Westall & Walmsley, 2018; Worroll & Houghton, 2018).

Edible landscaping is becoming more and more popular these days and this can fold into a urban planting plan (Creasy, 2010; M. Judd, 2013; Kourik & Kane, 1986; Reich, 2009; Soler, 2011; Stevens, 2020; Tiruneh & Hager, 2011). One type of edible landscaping dealing with trees in particular is called Forest Gardening (Crawford, 2010; Crawford & Aitken, 2014; Hart, 1996; Jacke & Toensmeier, 2005a, 2005b; Mudge et al., 2014; Whitefield, 1998). Village Homes outside of Davis, CA is one excellent example of forest gardening being implemented on community scale (Corbett & Corbett, 2000). Programs are now being implemented at the city scale in Asheville, Atlanta, Philadelphia and Seattle as well to name a few. The term Food Forests is another way to describe such plantings (Bukowski et al., 2018; Czolba & Frey, 2017; Good, 2015; Mudge et al., 2014). George Brabant is one of my favorite local people to Asheville, NC on You Tube showcasing this at a home scale.

A few resources cover many of the nuts of the world and in the eastern US cultivated and wild including woody plants and some non-woody ones as well (Crawford, 2016; Duarte & Paull, 2015; Fulbright, 2003; Janick & Paull, 2008; Jaynes, 1979; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1982; Lyle, 2006; Menninger, 1977; Parry, 2012; J. R. Smith, 1950; Woodroof, 1979).

Asheville has a group called the Nutty Buddy Collective that is pooling wild nuts together for processing. Hayden Stebbins, Sam Thayer, and Zach Elfers are a few independent researchers focusing on collecting woody plant material in the pursuit of perennial agriculture. The North American Fruit Explorers (NAFEX) are a great resource as well.

Conifers vs Broadleaves

One of the biggest distinctions in the tree world is between hardwoods also known as broadleaves and conifers. Conifers are a more ancient lineage with a once wider distribution. A number of great references cover the amazing world of conifers (Bitner, 2007, 2010, 2011; Bloom, 2001; T. Cox & Ruter, 2013; Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 2008, 2010; Krussmann et al., 1985; E. L. Little, n.d.).

A gymnosperm database can be viewed at the following link https://www.conifers.org

Conifers

The two largest families of conifers include the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Pinaceae members tend to have needles in different numbers and arrays in place of broad leaves. Pine (Pinus), Fir (Abies), Spruce (Picea), Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga), Hemlock (Tsuga), Classic Cedar (Cedrus) and Larch/Tamarack (Larix) are all included in this family. These genera also tend to have vitamin C in their needles which may come in handy in the case of being cut off from modern sources for much of the world like citrus and other cultivated fruits. However, too much intake of Pinaceae needle tea can be damaging due to the presence of resins (Elpel, 2013). Here is an interesting paleobotanical story about a species of Spruce.

Cupressaceae members often have foliage with imbricate (layered) scales that are sharp to the touch. The most common members are Juniper (Juniperus) and Cypress (Cupressus). Many trees that formerly went by Cupressus in the Americas have been changed by some to the genus (Callitropsis) (Judd et al., 2008). However, this does not seem to be confirmed by the World Flora Online. Hesperocyparis is a genus used by the USDA as well. Thuja and Chamaecyparis occur in the east and the west and go by a host of common names including types of Cede/ar. Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) is a common genus in the western United States. i am aware of a few book resources for the study the trees of the western USA specifically (Arno, 2007; Chadde, 2020; Earle et al., 2014; Gilkey & Packard, 2001; E. L. Little, 1976; Petrides, 1998b). California has some particular resources as well (Griffin, 1972; V. R. Johnston, 1996; Keator, 2009; McKelvey & Johnston, 1992; Paruk, 1998; Petrides, 2005).

The formerly separate members of Taxodiaceae are now included within the Cupressaceae family (Mabberley, 2017). North American members include California Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) and Bald Cypress (Taxodium spp.). Dawn Redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) was a species thought to be extinct until it was found in the 1940s’ and has a fascinating literature of distribution, ecology, forestry, history and medicinality all to itself (Bajpai et al., 2009, 2014; Bartholomew et al., 1983; BoÌcher, 1964; Chu & Cooper, 1950; Dong et al., 2011; Florin, n.d.; LePage et al., 2005; C. J. Williams et al., 2003). This sub-family holds the tallest and biggest tree titles for the planet and also some of the oldest trees as well.

Redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) are some of the most charismatic trees in the world and they have their whole own literature as a result (Barbour et al., 2001; Chin, 2015; Hewes, 1995; Hodder, 2019; Johnstone, 2001; Noss, 1999; Rehnborg, 2012; Siegel & Schwarz, 2016; Wasserman, 2019).

Giant Sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) are similar (Cooke, 2018; T. Johnston, 2014; Living Among Giants, 2017; Tweed & DenDooven, 1997; Tweed & Medeiros, 2016; Wadsworth & Staub, 1995; Willard, 2000). Memories of standing among these superlative trees out in California comprise some of my favorite tree experiences ever…

Bald Cypress and Dawn Redwood also belie the title evergreen as they both lose their leaves in the winter. Larch from the Pinaceae is another example in this deciduous regard. Other more exotic genera traditionally included in the Taxodiaceae include Cryptomeria, Athrotaxis, Cunninghamia, Glyptostrobus and Taiwania.

Smaller families of conifers include the Yew (Taxaceae), Podocarp (Podocarpaceae), Monkey Puzzle (Araucariaceae), Umbrella Pine (Sciadopitayaceae) and interestingly the not needled and monogeneric Ginkgo (Ginkgoaceae). The Podocarp and Monkey Puzzle families often occur in the Southern Hemisphere. One of the largest trees i have ever encountered was a hollowed out Prunopiptys from the Podocarpaceae that is centuries/millenia old growing near 10,000 ft elevation and the Cerro de la Muerte in Costa Rica! It is located on the Seeyle family land which i highly recommend visiting if you are ever in the area www.lasvueltas.com. It took around 15 people to make a ring around this massive elder tree and is one of my greatest memories from travels with Frank Cook.

In the northern temperate regions conifers tend to grow on more harsh sites. Some examples include dry, fire prone, windswept, acidic, snow buried or frigidly cold. They tend to have shallower roots than broadleaves, thicker bark and sometimes quicker growth as some adaptations for their adapted path. Most of them will not sprout from stumps. Redwoods are a notable exception. More conifers are put into plantations than probably any other trees. Pines in particular are popular in this regard i.e. Loblolly (Pinus taeda), Monterey (Pinus radiata), Ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa) and Slash (Pinus elliottii) are some prime examples (Barbaro et al., 2007; Bennett et al., 1959; Boothroyd et al., 2004; J. Campbell et al., 2009; Coutinho et al., 2007; Fox et al., 2007; Langer et al., 2008; Lee Allen et al., 2005; Onipchenko, 2004; Richardson, 2000; Tang et al., 2005). Here is an article by the BBC about the benefits of natural forest versus plantations. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210524-the-reason-wild-forests-beat-plantations

The Hemlock Wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and Balsam Wooly adelgids (Adelges piceae) are devastating pests. The Hemlock “Reishi” mushroom (Ganoderma tsugae) is one famous associated fungal species as is the Red Belted Polypore (Fomitopsis pinicola). The Reishi is a bit of a silver lining on the fact that most Hemlocks in the east have been decimated by the adelgid pest.

An entomologist friend Richard McDonald relayed to me that he has high hopes for beneficial insect identified in the western U.S, that may help control the hemlock wooly adelgid in the east as well though that introduced species has been shown to hybridize with a native relative for yet to be seen effects (Havill et al., 2012; Mausel et al., 2008, 2010; Mayfield et al., 2015; R. McDonald et al., 2008).

The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid has been the subject of research in various other ways for decades now as well (Hakeem et al., 2010; McClure, 1989, 1990, 1996; Orwig & Foster, 1998; Tingley et al., 2002; Vose et al., 2013).

Pine bark beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) are another challenging insect pest around the world (Brockerhoff et al., 2006; Chamberlin, 1920; Gaylord et al., 2008; Grosman et al., 2009; Hofstetter et al., 2008; Mendel et al., 1985). Pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), which is hosted on Currants (Ribes spp.) acts as a microbiological threat. Mushrooms from the family Boletaceae famously co-habitate with conifers in beneficial mycorrhizal relationships (Bessette, 2010; Bessette et al., 2017; Both, 1993; A. H. Smith & Thiers, 1970).

A lot of wild Ericaceae members are associated with the understory of conifers in the western USA and to a certain degree in the east as well. Members of the non-photosynthesizing group formerly known as the Monotropaceae have now been subsumed by the Ericaceae and tend to grow along with conifers too. The Rhododendrons within the Ericaceae have an extensive literature all their own (Bryant, 1996, 2001; K. Cox, 2005; K. N. E. Cox & Glen, 1998; P. A. Cox & Cox, 1988; Cullen, 2005; Davidian, 1982, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c; Hawthorne, 2014; Leach, 1961; Reilly, 1992; Salley & Greer, 2005; Towe, 2004; Vanveen, 1986; Young, 1981).

Hardwoods

Hardwoods tend to grow on nice sites and have tap roots. They are mostly deciduous in the north but often evergreen in the tropics. They often prefer higher pH soils than conifers. Their diverse arrays of fruits also tie them into a wider web of fauna. Many specific broadleaf trees have whole industries built around them including examples like tool handles, pencils, toothpicks, baseball bats and hockey sticks.

Many of the broadleaf trees that are native to North America are currently under assault from exotic insect or disease pests (Alford, 2012; Dreistadt & Clark, 2016; C. E. Little, 1995). Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) has killed millions of Ash trees and continues to spread. Gypsy Moths (Lymantria spp.) and Sudden Oak Death (Phytopthora ramorum) are affecting Oaks. Dogwood Anthracnose is taking out these iconic small trees. Other species are under attack as well including Butternut (Juglans cinerea) and Red Bay (Persea borbonia). Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch Elm disease are afflictions of the last century that have radically changed forest composition in the east. Ambrosia beetles on the Lauraceae and the wide ranging Lantern Fly are some more recent scourges. The plight of tree diseases and other forms of forest decline has been well documented. (Brosi, 2010; Clark et al., 2008; Coyier & Roane, 1986; Dalgleish & Swihart, 2012; Dreistadt, 2004; Hepting, 1971; Huettl & Mueller-Dombois, 2011; C. E. Little, 1995; Sinclair & Lyon, 2005).

Woody Plant Identification

Flowers or fruits are always the easiest way to identify a plant in combination with the rest of the characteristics. The first characteristic that i pay attention to elsewise is leaf orientation i.e. whether a plant is opposite or alternate. Most temperate world opposite leaved woody plants fall into the pneumonic device that i helped develop in collaboration with colleague and friend Robin Allison:

PrincessBBAAADCapSapSweetLove

Pronounced: Princess buh buh aaad CapSapSweetLove

Princess Tree (Pawlowniaceae)

(B) ignoniaceae i.e. Cross Vine (Bignonia), Catalpa, Trumpet Creeper (Campsis)

(B) uxaceae i.e. Boxwood (Buxus) and Allegheny Spurge (Pachysandra)

(A) sh i.e. Ash (Fraxinus), Jasmine (Jasminum) Olive (Olea), Privet (Ligustrum)

(A) doxaceae i.e. Elderberry (Sambucus) and Viburnum

(A) ucubaceae i.e. Japanese Laurel (Aucuba japonica)

(D) ogwood (Cornus)

(CAP) rifoliaceae i.e. Honeysuckle (Lonicera)

(Sap) indaceae i.e. Buckeye (Aesculus) Golden Rain Tree (Koelreuteria) and Maple (Acer).

(Sweet) shrub (Calycanthaceae) Calycanthus

(Love) Heart’s a bustin/Burning Bush (Euonymus), Bittersweet (Celastrus), (Celastraceae)

Compound versus simple leaves are the next distinguishing trait with woody plant identification especially. Compound leaves are fairly uncommon and more distinguished depending on leaf orientation. Opposite compound leaves typically denote the Mochatel (Adoxaceae), Ash (Oleaceae) and Maple/Buckeye (Sapindaceae) families in northern temperate areas. Woody plants with alternate compound leaves typically fall in the, Bean (Fabaceae), Rose (Rosaceae), Sumac (Anacardiaceae) or Walnut (Juglandaceae) families in northern temperate areas. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) (Simaroubaceae) is another pinnately compound alternate plant that is invasive in many areas especially in disturbed locales. However, like many invasive plants it is also a potent medicinal (Scott, 2010). It is also historically native at least to the west coast (Ornduff et al., 2003).

Leaf margin, hairiness, buds, and scars are additional traits used in dendrological identification. Hairiness denoted by such terms as hirsute, pillose, pubescent, stellate, strigose, tomentose, etc…are often reason enough for classic species delineation. Winter identification mostly depends on bark, bud type (number/shape of scales) and leaf/vascular bundle scars. We have played winter tree id in the Asheville area to much enjoyment and delight as well as humbled bafflement even in familiar terrain. Some books exist that can help specifically with winter id (Core & Ammons, 1999; Gilkey & Packard, 2001; Hagan et al., 2019; Harlow, 1946; Jones & Wofford, 2013; Lance, 2004; Symonds, 1958; Trelease, 1967; Watts & Watts, 1970; M. D. Williams, 2007; Wojtech, 2011). Trees and shrubs can provide quite a bit of “winter interest” in the garden when selected properly (Bourne, 2005; Buchanan, 1997; Buffin, 2005; Hardy, 2019; Pollet, 2017; Price, 2007; Simeone et al., 2005; Sterndale-Bennett, 2006). My friend and teacher Sevensong has a great handout on winter tree id that he has graciously offered to share online.

Regional Guides

Many great references exist to help one in the exploration of woody plants and their uses (Brockman, 1986; Dirr, 1998; Elias, 1980; Hardin, Leopold, & White, 2001). In Appalachia the references i use most are represented by a handful of books (Petrides, 1998a; Radford et al., 1968; Swanson, 1994; Weakley, 2012; Wofford, 1989). Swanson in particular is key! Other older and less comprehensive references are also available (Stupka, 1964). A couple bibliographies have been developed for information on Southern hardwoods too (W. D. Miller, 1967, 1974).

In the Sierra Nevada’s of the U.S. i have been thankful for a compact lightweight book by Petrides (2005). In the past i have also consulted bigger more comprehensive resources for woody plants of the Western U.S. (Petrides, 1998b; Sudworth, 1967).. There are also references specific to trees and shrubs of California (Hatch & Faber, 2007; Lanner, 1999; Pavlik et al., 1993; V. P. Peterson, 1975; Stuart & Sawyer, 2001).

The Flora of the California is known as the Jepson Manual (Hickman, 1993). A newer version has been published as well (Baldwin et al., 2012). California also has great online botany information through Cal Flora. These are the definitive resources to the over 5,000 plant taxa that occur within the Golden state. Quite a few books have been written for exploration of woody plants in the desert Southwest more generally (J. E. Bowers, 1998; J. Bowers & Wignall, 1993; Carter, 1997; Elmore, 1976; Lamb, 1975; MacKay, 2003).

Specific resources have been generated for the more tropical clime of Florida as well (Austin, 1997; Cutts, 2004; Hammer, 2004, 2010; Kirk, 2009; Koeser et al., 2015, 2017; Kurz & Godfrey, 1962; Lee & West, 2011; E. L. Little, 1978; G. Nelson, 2010, 2011; Scurlock, 1996; Sklar & Valk, 2011; Small, 1995; Stebbins, 1999; Stevenson, 1981; Tomlinson, 2001; West & Arnold, 1956; W. Williams, 2001).

Other states with good woody plant resources include Kansas, Michigan and Tennessee (Barnes et al., 2016; Haddock & Freeman, 2019; Jones & Wofford, 2013).

i know of at least one good guide to trees of England (Sterry & Sterry, 2008). i also have a guide to both trees and shrubs from a company based in England that covers over 9,000 plants in over 650 genera (Nurseries, 1992)! One guide covers over 500 trees of both Europe and North America (R. Phillips, 1978). Another guide by Phillips (2002) references 450 genera of trees and shrubs once again accompanied by great photographs.

Some specific resources for shrubs often combined with vines are available as well (Barnes et al., 2016; Curtis, 1945; Foote & Jones, 1989; Grimm, 1966; Hinley, 2009; Hyams, 1965; Keeler, 1969; Linden & Farrar, 2016; Staff, 1994; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998; Weeks & Jr, 2012; Zucker, 1966). My favorite resource by George Symonds (1963) contains photographs for side by side comparisons of different species bark, flowers and fruits.

A number of resources also cover trees of North America in a broad fashion (Brockman, 1986; Fraser et al., 2017; Grimm, 2001; Peattie, 2013; Russell & Cutler, 2003; Sargent, 1965). According to one such reference there are at least 652 native species and over 100 introduced species of trees in North America (Elias, 1980).

Regarding the tropics much more diversity exists. i am aware of a few references for Costa Rica specifically (Céspedes & Lindquist, 2007; Chazdon et al., 2010; Condit et al., 2010; Cornejo et al., 2012; Poveda et al., 2011; Pucci & Pucci, 2017; Webb & Peralta, 1998; Zamora et al., 2004). There is a handy pocket guide for trees and shrubs of Hawaii as too (Pratt, 1998).

Thanks to my recent travel and interest in the Caribbean i have come across quite a few resources on woody plants from Jamaica specifically (K. C. St. E. Campbell, 2010; Leiva, 2007; E. L. Little & Wadsworth, 1964; Marcelle et al., 2004; M. A. McDonald et al., 2003; Storer, 1964; Tanner, 1977, 1982; Tanner et al., 1990). Some resources talk about the region more generally or cover other islands (Billingham et al., 2007; Leiva, 2007; E. L. Little et al., 1974; Mowbray, 2012; Pertchik et al., 1951; Seddon & Lennox, 1980).

Overall guides to the trees of the world exists as well (Barwick & Schans, 2004; Cook et al., 2017; Drori, 2018; Russell et al., 2014). i also have come across one exquisite guide to trees of the world covering almost 2,000 species and cultivars with awesome illustrations and ethnobotanical references (More & White, 2005). One rather comprehensive partly digital resource covers 8,500 different trees and shrubs of the world and also comes with a handy interactive though possibly antiquated CD (Wasson, 2001). A few books by Thomas Pakenham (2001, 2003, 2004, 2016) take note of remarkable trees of the world and make for a jaw dropping bucket list for the intrepid traveler and pilgrim. A number of other authors have also followed suit (Blackwell, 2009; Cook et al., 2017; Drori, 2018; Moon, 2014).

Clearly a lot of awesome resources are out there in book form and certainly some great websites exist as well. One great free resource that i recently came across with numerous publications on tree care is from Bartlett Tree Experts http://www.bartlett.com/resourceList.cfm.

Monographs

Below are monographs for most of the major woody plant families in the temperate world! Families are listed alphabetically by scientific name. Your support to develop this further is greatly encouraged. Factoids and funds could move this along to a more comprehensive place!

Family descriptions are covered systematically. The first section includes a chart showing distribution in the world, North America and the Blue Ridge using the sources underlined in the introduction above. A modern taxonomic commentary depending on four main sources follows (Heywood et al., 2007; W. S. Judd et al., 2008; Mabberley, 2017; Weakley, 2020). Next follows a listing of genera known in Appalachia according to Wofford (1989). The number of species for each genus is in parentheses. The first number is for native species. The second number when present is for introduced species. Introduced plants in general tend to be represented by one species from an exotic genus. The native species almost always out number introduced species when contained within the same genus. A list of taxa excluded by Wofford follows. Excluded taxa are normally reported from a limited range and are often cultivated plants that may escape locally. Within the above three botanical sections all plant names are in scientific terminology only. In the below usage categories common names precede scientific names at least the first time the plant is mentioned i.e. Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Common plant names are capitalized as usual because they are at least as important as people to me!

Finally, species that fit into the categories of food, medicine, poison, insect affiliation, invasiveness, dye plants, other crafts, aesthetics and aromatics are included. Foods included comprise wild and cultivated taxa. One source is the primary reference mixed with over a 15 years of personal experience regarding wild foods (Couplan, 1998). Don’t ever eat flowers or other parts of plants from a florist or other synthetically chemical intensive source. Always be absolutely positive of the identification and utilization of anything you plan to consume! Medicinal notations address only some extremely important plants due to time limitations.

Invasiveness is mostly only covered relative to Appalachia and specifically inclusion in the Blue Ridge Flora. One cited reference was used primarily (J. H. Miller et al., 2006). However, personal experience with exotic invasive plants informed commentary that is not cited. Many invasive plants in Appalachia are also invasive throughout their introduced range.

Plant uses by bees were compiled primarily from three comprehensive book sources with the addition of 20 years of personal experience (H. B. Lovell, 1977; J. H. Lovell, 1999; Pellett, 1977). Most people are aware of the terrible plight currently facing not just honey bees but a host of other insects as well. However, a few prime resources in this dialogue bear mentioning (Frey et al., 2016; Hallmann et al., 2017; Holm, 2017; Jarvis, 2018; Leather, 2018; Shepherd et al., 2003).

Dye plants included are noted when not so plentiful to be confusing. For the Fabaceae and Rosaceae for instance only some dye plants of special interest are included.

Aceraceae/Maple Family (Now included in the Sapindaceae)

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1(n)	Genera	1	Genera
Species and Lower taxa	8(n) 1(i)	Species	19	Species
		Lower Taxa	21

Taxonomic commentary:

This family is now often included as a part of the more tropical Sapindaceae (Heywood et al., 2007; Judd et al., 2008; Weakley, 2008). That is why no distribution occurs for world scope.

Blue Ridge Genera:

Acer

Food:

Sap from various species (Cunningham, 2018; Farrell, 2013; Fryer, 2015; Haedrich & Cunningham, 2015; Herd, 2011; Jacobsen, 2010; LeGrand, 2014; Mann & Farrell, 2016; Nearing & Nearing, 2000; Rechlin, 2016; Svanberg et al., 2012; Trubek, 2009; Webster, 2015; Whynott, 2014).

Seeds are also said to be edible (Couplan, 1998).

Insects:

Provides early forage for bees in February/March

Invasives:

Amur Maple (Acer ginnala), Hedge Maple (A. campestre), Palmate Maple (A. palmatum), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), Sycamore Maple (A. psuedoplatanus) and Tatarian maples (A. tataricum) are all introduced and naturalized mostly to the NE USA with some stretching down to the southeast. Amur and Norway are the two that have achieved noxious status as listed by the USDA so far.

Dye Plants:

Acer spp. (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

Other Crafts:

Acer spp.

Aesthetics:

Paper bark maple (Acer griseum) is a marvelous landscape tree with exfoliating bark. Many other “Japanese” maples i.e. A. palmatum etc. are popular landscape plants.

Anacardiaceae/Cashew Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	12	Genera	82
Species	7(n)	Species	37	Species	700+
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	22

Blue Ridge Genera:

Toxicodendron (3), Rhus (4)

Food:

Fruits of Sumac (Rhus spp.) have been used by Native Americans and others to make a type of pink lemonade due to malic acid (L. Peterson, 1978). Cold infusion and straining is optimum. Heat brings out bitter tannins.

Many popular exotic food stuffs are in this family. These include Pistachio (Pistacia spp.), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Mango (Mangifera indica), and Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius). In the Caribbean the June Plum (Spondias sp.) is also enjoyed. A type of Sumac (Rhus coriaria) is ground up and used as a flavoring spice called Zaatar in the Middle East.

Toxicity:

Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), Atlantic Poison Oak (T. pubescens), Pacific Poison Oak (R. diversilobum), Poison Sumac (T. vernix) Western Poison Oak (T. rydbergii) can cause severe skin irritation for susceptible individuals. Poisonwood/Burn Plum (Metopium spp.). Allergic reactions are known to occur for certain people with many if not all the members of this family!

Insects:

Bees freely work Rhus spp. for nectar.

Invasiveness:

Poison ivy is native but can quickly take over disturbed areas. Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) is a challenging exotic invasive in Florida and Hawaii.

Dye Plants:

Smoketree (Cotinus coggygria), Sumacs (Rhus copallina syn. R. copallinum, R. coriaria, R. glabra, R. hirta syn. R. typhina) (Bliss, 1993; Cannon & Cannon, 2003; Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Moerman, 1998; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Aesthetics:

Fruits of Rhus spp. make great additions to flower arrangements fresh or dry. Cotinus is a beautiful landscape plant with purple cultivars that can also be employed in flower arrangements to striking effect C. obovatus is native to the Southeast and Midwest of the USA.

Aquifoliaceae/Holly Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	2	Genera	1
Species	4(n)	Species	29	Species	400+
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	9

Taxonomic commentary:

Nemopanthus has now been moved to Ilex (Heywood et al., 2007). In the southern Blue Ridge represented by Catberry (Ilex mucronata)

Blue Ridge Genera: Ilex (4), Nemopanthus (1)

Food:

The roasted leaves of some members have been used to prepare a caffeinated beverage including Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) and Yaupon Holly (I. vomitoria) (Couplan, 1998). I. cassine and I. guayusa also have significant amounts of caffeine (Edwards & Bennett, 2005; Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Other species used for tea besides those above include Gallberry (I. glabra), American Holly (I. opaca) and Winterberry (I. verticillata) (Couplan, 1998).

Toxicity:

Triterpine saponins and their esters (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). The berries are often considered to not be edible, however, the leaves tend to be not toxic (Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007).

Insects:

Gallberry/Inkberry (Ilex glabra) is important for bees in warmer areas (Pellett, 1976). Many other species of Ilex are good sources of nectar as well.

Wildlife:

Many birds appreciate the fruits of Hollies. Deciduous Hollies like Possumhaw (Ilex decidua) and Winterberry (I. verticillata) are a couple examples among other evergreen spp.

Invasiveness:

None known

Dye Plants:

American Holly (Ilex opaca)

Other Crafts:

Ilex spp. have traditionally been use for wood work.

Aesthetics:

Many species are very attractive in the landscape for evergreen foliage and showy fruits. Plants are dioecious so males and females are required for fruiting.

Araliaceae/Spikenard Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n) 1(i)	Genera	11	Genera	41-50
Species	6(n) 1(i)	Species	49	Species	1,450
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	114

Blue Ridge Genera:

Aralia (4), Hedera (1), Panax (2)

Food:

According to a personal conversation the leaves and roots of Sarsaparilla (Aralia californica) are used by Daniel Nicholson in California for tea. This is the only native member of Araliaceae in the state. Other members of Aralia from the Eastern U.S. have been used similarly especially in the preparation of root beer (L. Peterson, 1978). Some young shoots of Aralia spp. have been eaten in the spring (Couplan, 1998). However, i know from direct experience that Aralia spinosa may cause some irritation especially if one tries to consume it raw.

Medicine:

Multiple species of Panax are adaptogenic (Winston & Maimes, 2007; Yance, 2013) Aralia spp. may be medicinal as well. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is a major medicinal in the northwest U.S. (Foster & Hobbs, 2002; MacKinnon & Pojar, 2013; Pojar & MacKinnon, 2004). English Ivy (Hedera helix) is used in European herbal medicine, Latin America and elsewhere for bronchial conditions (Fazio et al., 2009; Holzinger & Chenot, 2011; Scott, 2010).

Toxicity:

Triterpine saponins occur in the Araliaceae including English Ivy (Hedera helix) (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). English Ivy may also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Members of Aralia may cause irritation to susceptible individuals especially if consumed raw.

Insects:

Insects love members of this family in bloom.

Invasiveness:

English ivy (Hedera helix) is a prolific exotic invasive. Octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla) in warmer areas of the USA.

Dye Plants:

English Ivy (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009).

Other Crafts:

Vines of ivy can be used for various decorations.

Aesthetics:

Hedera helix is famous for covering buildings but can cause some damage to the outside surface. Many Aralia spp. are beautiful plants with showy blossoms. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is stunning in the understory of the Pacific Northwest conifer forests. Fatsia japonica and Schefflera spp. are common house plants with umbrella like leaves.

Miscellaneous:

English Ivy is one of the best plants studied for improving indoor air quality (Wolverton, 1997).

Berberidaceae/Barberry Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	5	Genera	10	Genera	12-16
Species	6(n) 1(i)	Species	35	Species	650-700
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	6

Blue Ridge Genera:

Berberis (2), Caulophyllum (2), Diphylleia (1), Jeffersonia (1), Podophyllum (1)

This is a mostly herbaceous family with one prominent shrubby member (Berberis) in Appalachia and a host of medicinal uses.

Food:

The edible berries are sour and often need to be sweetened in the Barberry (Berberis) and cultivated Oregon grape (Mahonia) genera. Fruits of Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) may be consumed when fully ripe!!!

Medicine:

Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) is a potent medicine for women’s issues. Berberine contained in many members is a powerful immune boosting anti-microbial medicine. Podophyllotoxin from Mayapple is used as an anti-cancer drug (Duke & Foster, 1999). Horny Goatweed (Epimedium spp.) are famous understory groundcovers in this family.

Toxicity:

This family tests the boundaries between food, medicine and poison. Blue Cohosh contains an alkaloidal convulsant poison (Nelson et al., 2007). Podophyllum contains a mitotic inhibitor (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects:

Berberis spp. are attractive to bees but rarely provide much honey.

Invasiveness:

The exotic Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii), Beale’s Barberry (Mahonia bealei) and Heavenly Bamboo (Nandina domestica) all can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006). Other potential exotic invasives to the USA include Berberis darwinii, B. vulgaris, and B. julianae based off of maps at the USDA plants site.

Dye Plants:

Many species of Barberry (Berberis spp.) and Oregon Grapes (Mahonia spp.) can be used for dyes (Bliss, 1994; Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Aesthetics:

The flowers of Oregon grape are often showy and slightly fragrant. The fruits of various Barberries and Oregon grapes are attractive. Though spiny, they can be used in flower arrangements. The less common Giant Blue Cohosh (C. giganteum) is striking aesthetically but less common than the species mentioned above.

Betulaceae/Birch Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	5	Genera	5	Genera	6
Species	13(n) 1(i)	Species	32	Species	130
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	47

Blue Ridge Genera:

Alnus (3), Betula (7), Carpinus (1), Corylus (2), Ostrya (1)

Food:

Nuts from Corylus including the European Filbert (C. avellana) and the American Hazelnut (C. americana) (Deur, 2014; Jumbalaya, 2006). Other species include Beaked Hazelnut (C. cornuta), Giant Filbert (Corylus maxima), Himalayan Hazelnut (C. ferox), Siberian Hazelnut (C. heterophylla) and Turkish Hazelnut (C. colurna).

The inner bark of the Alder has a tradition of use by Native Americans as a survival food (J. Pojar et al., 1994). Alder has also been used to smoke food. A number of Birch species can be tapped for their sap which can be consumed raw or brewed into various different types of beverages (Couplan, 1998; Farrell, 2013). The tradition in Northern and Eastern Europe of using the saps for brewing has been studied in particular (Svanberg et al., 2012).

Medicine:

Alder is a typical medicine for the Native people of USA (Moerman, 2009). Black Birch (Betula lenta) contain methyl salicylates which act as mild analgesics akin to the chemistry in Aspirin and correspond to the smell of wintergreen (Duke & Foster, 2014). Downy Birch (Betula pubescens) is used as an ingredient in the Botanist Gin.

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Alders (Alnus spp.) are an important early source of pollen for bees.

Invasiveness:

None known

Dye Plants:

Alder (Alnus spp.) (Bliss, 1994; Eaton, 1973; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Birch (Betula spp.) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009)

Other Crafts:

Wood used by western tribes for bowls and masks (J. Pojar et al., 1994).

Aesthetics:

Many species make handsome landscape trees especially Harry Lauder’s walking stick (Corylus avellana x maxima ‘contorta’). Purple leaved varieties have been developed as well.

Miscellaneous:

Alders fix nitrogen though a different microbial association regarding Actinomycetes rather than the better known Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium from the Fabaceae. Wax Myrtle (Myrica gale) and Sweet Fern (Comptonia) from the Myricaceae and Ceanothus from the Rhamnaceae do this as well (Evert et al., 2012).

Bignoniaceae/Crossvine Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n) 1(i)	Genera	20	Genera	105
Species	2(n) 2(i)	Species	32	Species	850+
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	2

Blue Ridge Genera:

Bignonia (1), Campsis (1), Catalpa (2)

Food:

Medicine:

Toxicity:

i have heard of potential rashes from handling Turmpet Creeper in particular

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Trumpet Creeper (Campsis radicans) can definitely be a bully in the garden like many other vines.

Wildlife Support:

Like many red/orange/yellow tubular flowers from various families members from this group are popular with hummingbirds.

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Gorgeous big tubular flowers are a hallmark of many members of this family.

Miscellaneous:

Crossvine and Trumpet Creeper are both good supports for Hummingbirds.

Caprifoliaceae/Honeysuckle Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	7	Genera	11	Genera	12
Species	22(n) 4(i)	Species	82	Species	250
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	59

Taxonomic commentary:

The Caprifoliaceae is a messy family in transition. Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) and Viburnums (Viburnum spp.) have been moved to Adoxaceae (Spears, 2006). A number of genera have sometimes been given their own families i.e. Sambucaceae, Diervillaceae, Linnaeaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). American Elderberries are sometimes treated as subspecies of the European one (Sambucus nigra) but our most recent southeastern flora keeps them at the level of species rank (Weakley, 2020).

Blue Ridge Genera:

Diervilla (3), Linnaea (1), Lonicera (3n,3i), Sambucus (2), Symphoricarpos (2), Triosteum (3), Viburnum (9) Wofford excluded: Lonicera fragrantissima and Lonicera xylosteum

Food:

Fruits from Black Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) and Blue Elderberry (Sambucus cerulea) are used for jelly, wine, syrup etc (Bayer, 2017; Couplan, 1998). Some black fruited Viburnums are edible raw (V. nudum ssp. cassinoides V. cassinoides, V. lantanoides syn V. alnifolia, V. lantana, V. nudum, V. prunifolium, V. rufidulum) and red fruited Viburnums are best cooked (V. trilobum, V. opulus) (Couplan, 1998). Fruits from the horse gentian (Triosteum perfoliatum) can be roasted as a coffee substitute (Couplan, 1998).

Flowers of Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) are famous for the little drop of nectar inside and also can be used to adorn salads, cakes and the like (Purvis, 2014). Fruits of at least some honeysuckles mostly from the Pacific Northwest i.e. (L. ciliosa, L. hispidula, L. involucrata and L. villosa) are edible but others are poisonous and unfortunately even the poisonous ones are purported to taste good (Couplan, 1998). Edible Landscaping in Virginia is one good source of edible Honeysuckle species.

Medicine:

Sambucus nigra and S. canadensis are famous medicinals for colds and flu (Chrubasik, 2015; Karimi et al., 2014; Kinoshita et al., 2012; Krawitz et al., 2011; Rivera & Obón, 1995; Roschek et al., 2009; Vlachojannis et al., 2015; Zakay-Rones et al., 2004).

Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is a prevalent flu remedy in China used as part of the formulation Yin chiao (Duke & Foster, 2014).

Crampbark (Viburnum opulus) and Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) have a long history of use for women’s health. Other species have traditional medicinal use by indigenous Americans (Moerman, 1998, 2003).

Toxicity:

Sambucus contains cyanogenic glycocides and only the stemless fruits should be consumed in any quantity. Some debate exists on the possible toxicity of Red Elderberry (S. racemosa) and a Black Elderberry (S. ebulus) in Europe is considered to be outright poisonous at least in one source (ANWB, 2005). Snowberry fruits (Symphoricarpos spp.) contain saponins and a small amount of chelidonine (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects:

Blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium) is good for stimulating early brood production. Sambucus nigra is important for pollen. Most Lonicera spp. flowers have tubes too long for bees to reach their nectar. However, some bush and fly honeysuckles (L. morrowi and L. tatarica) are visited by bees. Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) is much sought after by bees when abundant.

Invasiveness:

Seven taxa of Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) are introduced and invasive to various degrees though a few are not included in Wofford (1989). These include (L. japonica), Breath of Spring (L. fragrantissima), Morrow’s Honeysuckle (L. morrowii) Coral Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens), Standish’s Honeysuckle (L. standishii) Tatarian Honeysuckle (L. tatarica) and Bell’s Honeysuckle (L. x bella) (Miller et al., 2006). Japanese Honeysuckle is by far one of the most widespread exotic invasives covering over 45,000,000 acres according to one analysis (Oswalt et al., 2009). The native Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens) makes a great alternative to the Japanese Honeysuckle (Burrell, 2006).

Dye Plants:

Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Other Crafts:

The exotic invasive Lonicera japonica can be used for basketry (S. H. Hill, 1997).

Aesthetics:

Many species are attractive ornamental plants and smell wonderful.

Celastraceae/Bittersweet Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3	Genera	13	Genera	93
Species	3 (n) 3(i)	Species	35	Species	1200
		Lower Taxa	8

Blue Ridge Genera:

Celastrus (2), Euonymus (3), Paxistima (1)

Food:

Young parts of Bittersweet (Celastrus spp.) have been consumed in the past after boiling (Couplan, 1998). Not recommended!!!

Toxicity:

Celastrus fruits are said to be poisonous containing an unknown gastrointestinal irritant (Nelson et al., 2007). Khat (Catha edulis) is an addictive narcotic used in Africa in places like Somalia (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).

Insects:

Native Bittersweet Celastrus scandens is worked freely by bees.

Invasiveness:

The Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) is one of the most challenging exotic invasive plants of the Appalachian region. It is distinguished from the native C. scandens that is crosses with by having axillary fruits and different shaped leaves (Leicht-Young et al., 2007). Winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus) and Winter Creeper (E. fortunei) can be exotic invasives though neither is considered in the Blue Ridge Flora (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989).

Dye Plants:

None known

Other Crafts:

Wreathes and baskets can be made from Celastrus orbiculatus though care should be made not to spread invasive fruits or harvest the native which is not common east of the smokies.

Aesthetics:

Euonymus spp. and Celastrus spp. have beautiful foliage and fruits in the fall.

Cornaceae/Dogwood Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1	Genera	1	Genera	7
Species	6	Species	16	Species	105
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	8

Taxonomic commentary: The landscape plant Aucuba japonica has sometimes been included with the Cornaceae. It is now often put in its own family (Aucubaceae) (Heywood et al., 2007). Some debate remains as to whether Nyssaceae is a separate family or a subfamily of Cornaceae (Heywood et al., 2007; Weakley, 2020).

Dogwoods can apparently be broken up into clades. Potentially four sections: Big plants with showy Bracts i.e. C. florida, C. kousa, Little plants with showy bracts i.e. C. canadensis. The biggest group is the small bract group broken into two parts the Cornels i.e. C. mas, C. officinalis, C. sessilis, and a much larger section of which C. alternifolia and C. ammomum are part (Cornus (Genus) - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, n.d.). Edibility seems to follow along these grouping lines.

Blue Ridge Genera: Cornus (1)

Food:

Fruits of Bunchberry (C. canadensis) and the introduced landscape plants Cornelian cherry (C. mas) and Asian Dogwood (C. kousa) are edible (Couplan, 1998). The Black Fruited Dogwood (Cornus sessilis) has been enjoyed by friends and myself in California. It is not included in Couplan (1998) but edibility is supported from other sources (Clarke, 1978; Fern, 2008). A tradtion of consumption of Red Osier (Cornus sericea) exists in the western US among the Indigenous groups such as the Blackfoot, Flathead, Hesquiat, Kutenai, Nespelem, Nitinaht, Okanangan, Sanpoil and Thompson as well (Moerman, 1998).

Medicine:

Cornus canadensis was used medicinally as an anti-malarial during the Civil War (Porcher, 1970). A number of species from this genus have tradtions for a plethora of medicinal applications and in smoke blends with the Indigenous groups of North America (Moerman, 1998).

Toxicity:

Most fruits are not wholesome for people. Bloodtwig dogwood (Cornus sanguinea) can cause skin irritation (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: ?

Wildlife: The fruits of Dogwoods are appreciated by many migrating birds and represent an important food source for them.

Invasiveness:

None known

Dye Plants:

Dogwoods (Cornus spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Other Crafts:

The wood of Cornus florida is very hard and dense. It may be used for mallets and other durable goods. Dogwood twigs have also been used in basketry and as toothbrushes. Traditional use in basketry among Indigenous peoples of North America (Moerman, 1998).

Aesthetics:

Many dogwoods are beautiful landscape trees with exceptional bark characteristics (Cappiello & Shadow, 2005). Flowers wilt soon after cutting foliage. The most common native Dogwood (Cornus florida) is threatened by an anthracnose disease that may remove it from the natural environment.

Cupressaceae/Cypress Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	7	Genera	30
Species	3(n)	Species	34	Species	130
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	10

Taxonomic Commentary

Callitropsis and Hesperocyparis are two newer genera sometimes now used for western US members of this family

Blue Ridge Genera:

Juniperus (2), Thuja (1)

Western genera include Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) which is a major ethnobotanical of Pacific Northwestern Native Americans (Pojar et al., 1994).

Number for world genera and species from D.J. Mabberly (2008).

Food:

Cones from Junipers (Juniperus spp.) are used in food items such as kraut and distillations i.e. gin, jenever

Toxicity:

Can be toxic in large quantities, use moderately… The compound Thujone is one item of concern.

Invasiveness:

Some species of Juniperus are weedy and have taken over millions of acres (Judd et al., 2008).

Dye Plants:

Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) (Eaton, 1973).

Other Crafts:

Wood is highly valued and often aromatic and rot resistant.

Aesthetics:

Many members of this family are valued in the landscape including Junipers (Juniperus spp.), Psuedo Cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.), Arborvitae (Thuja spp.) and Cypress (Cupressus spp.).

Ericaceae/Heath Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	18(n)	Genera	33	Genera	124
Species	50(n)	Species	192	Species	4050
Lower Taxa	2	Lower Taxa	112

Taxonomic commentary:

This family now includes the formerly distinct Pyrolaceae and Monotropaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). Kartesz (1994) treated these two/three families separately. Their totals are compiled under Ericaceae here. No exotic members are included in Wofford. Heywood et al. include 8 subfamilies and 20 tribes.

Blue Ridge Genera:

Arctostaphylos (1), Chamaedaphne (1), Chimaphila (2), Epigaea (1), Gaultheria (1), Gaylussacia (5), Kalmia (2), Leiophyllum (1), Leucothoe (3), Lyonia (2), Menziesia (1), Monotropa (2), Monotropsis (1), Oxydendrum (1), Pieris (1), Pyrola (4), Rhododendron (11), Vaccinium (10)

Food:

Fruits from Blueberries/Cranberries (Vaccinium spp.) and Huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.) are relished for pies, jams, wines etc. Fruits from Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.) are enjoyed in the western U.S. Fruits of Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) have a tradition of consumption across its range (Moerman, 1998).

Honey from several members of the Ericaceae including Rhododendron spp. may be toxic (Kingsbury, 1964; Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007; Pellett, 1977). Mountain laurels (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.) and Dog Hobble (Leucothoe spp.) are all toxic to livestock. Their wood should also probably not be burned. Sodium channel activators are present in Mtn Laurel (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.), Maleberries (Lyonia spp.), Rhododendron spp., Pernettya spp. and Doghobble (Leucothoe spp.) (Nelson et al., 2007). Grayanotoxins or andromedatoxins are usually attributed to Ericaceae toxicity.

Insects:

Vaccinium and Gaylussacia provide good surplus nectar for bees. A special honey is produced in Appalachia from the Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum). Bees are also fond of Fetterbushes (Pieris spp.).

Invasiveness:

None of the many species included in the Blue Ridge Flora is introduced (Wofford, 1989)!

Dye Plants:

Heath (Erica spp.) & Heather (Calluna vulgaris) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009)

Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) and Bear berry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Blueberry (Vaccinium) spp. (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

Other Crafts:

Wood from Rhododendron spp. and Mountain laurel (Kalmia spp.) is used for ornamental fence railings.

Aesthetics:

Many of the plants in this family are used in the landscape especially for their spring flower displays.

Fabaceae/Bean Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	30(n) 7(i)	Genera	158	Genera	727-732
Species	80(n) 27(i)	Species	1574	Species	19000-19700
		Lower Taxa	876

This is a very important family. Most members aid in fixing nitrogen in the soil symbiotically with special bacteria that live in their roots. Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient. Therefore, many members of this family are often used as cover crops. Only a few of the members in the temperate zone are woody shrubs or trees but they are almost all significant in various ways. Redbud (Cercis canadensis) amongst some other members from the family does not fix nitrogen.

Taxonomic Commentary:

The Fabaceae is the third biggest family in the world. The family is so big and diverse that it is often split into three sub families: Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae, Papilionoideae (Heywood et al., 2007).

Woody Blue Ridge Genera:

Albizia (1), Cercis (1), Cladrastis (1), Gleditisia (1) Lespedeza (13) Pueraria montana syn P. lobata (1), Robinia (3), Wisteria (2)

W. sinensis and Gymnocladus not included in Wofford!

Food:

The Fabaceae is also one of the chief sources of protein for vegetarians. Beans (Phaseolus spp.) are native to Central America (Van Wyk, 2005). Red Bud (Cercis spp.) and Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) flowers are choice edibles. Flowers of Wisteria are also consumed by some (Couplan, 1998) though said to be potentially poisonous to at least a soubset of folks as well (Morton, 1982).

Medicine:

Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus), Senna (Cassia spp.), Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Red clover (Trifolium pratense), Kudzu (Pueraria montana) and Silk tree/Mimosa (Albizzia julibrissin) are just a few of the famous medicinals from this family (Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).

Toxicity:

Many members are toxic even possibly deadly and plants from this family should never be sampled without absolute positive identification. Alkaloidal convulsant poison containing genera include Gymnocladus, Sophora, Laburnum and Baptisia (Nelson et al., 2007). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Rattlebox/Riverhemp (Sesbania spp.) contain saponins (Kingsbury, 1964). Triterpine and steroidal saponins may occur in the Fabaceae in general (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Rattleboxes Sesbania and (Crotalaria) contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Nelson et al., 2007). Vicia spp. and Trifolium spp. can cause photosensitivity through their effect on the liver (Kingsbury, 1964). Some people are allergic to members of the Fabaceae including soybeans (Glycine max). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and other nuts. Robinia containss a toxalbumin (Nelson et al., 2007). Wisteria spp. contains wistarine which is a gylcocide (Nelson et al., 2007). Other potentially toxic members include Locoweeds (Astragalus spp.), Senna (Cassia), Sweet peas (Lathyrus spp.) and Lupines (Lupinus spp.) (Blackwell, 1990).

Insects:

The following plants are beloved by bees and other insects: Indigo (Baptisia spp.), Red Bud (Cercis canadensis), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Sweet Clovers (Melilotus spp.), Vetch (Vicia spp.) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum), Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and False Indigo (Amorpha spp.). Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) also provides pollen for bees.

Invasiveness:

Silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius), Shrubby Lespedeza (Lespedeza bicolor), Sericea Lespedeza (L. cuneata), Thunberg’s Lespedeza (L. thunbergii), Kudzu (Pueraria montana), Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia), Japanese Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda), Chinese Wisteria (W. sinensis) (Miller et al., 2006).

Dye Plants:

At least thirty seven species of Fabaceae are listed as used for dye (Fern, 2008). Appalachian native and naturalized genera include, Indigo (Baptisia australis) Dyer’s Indigo (B. tinctoria) and Broom (Cytisus scoparius).

Other Crafts:

Beans from various members i.e. (Caesalpinia, Crotalaria, Enterolobium) have been used for jewelry. Black Locust wood is very rot resistant and is often used for fence posts and even structurally as part of the foundation for houses. Wisteria and Kudzu can be used for basketry.

Aesthetics:

Many members of the Fabaceae have a stunning array of attractive characteristics.

Fagaceae/Beech Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n)	Genera	5	Genera	8
Species	23(n)	Species	95	Species	620-750
		Lower Taxa	138

Blue Ridge Genera: Castanea (2), Fagus (1), Quercus (20) Wofford excluded: Quercus virginiana.

Western members: Bush Chinquapin (Chrysolepsis sempervirens) Tanbark Oak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus) syn (Lithocarpus densiflorus)

The Quercus genus is legendarily diverse even into the upper montane areas of the American tropics (Cavender-Bares et al., 2018; Gil-Pelegrín et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2010; Kappelle, 2008, 2010; Kremer & Hipp, 2020; H. A. Miller & Lamb, 1984; Pavlik et al., 1993).

Food:

The Fagaceae represents an incredible food resource from every genus represented in the Blue Ridge. This family contains the Oaks (Quercus spp.), Chestnuts (Castanea spp.) and Beeches (Fagus spp.) Acorns from White Oaks such as (Quercus alba) and Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus/montana) contain lower tannin amounts and therefore need less leaching. All Oaks produce edible nuts. Some are more choice than others.

A number of mushrooms of which many are edible are also associated with the Oaks (Arora, 1986; Bessette et al., 2018; Binion et al., 2008; Elliott & Stephenson, 2018; Roody, 2003).

Native Americans far from being passive forest dwellers of Oak/Chestnut forests often set fires to achieve various goals of which some were related to increasing food availability (Delcourt et al., 1998; Delcourt & Delcourt, 1998). The Oak cultures of California are particularly well studied and documented (Anderson, 2009; Funk & Kaufman, 2011; Grossinger & Askevold, 2012; Long et al., 2016, 2017).

Toxicity:

Tannins are present in many members and are not good to consume in high amounts. American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) contains saponins as well (Kingsbury, 1964).

Insects:

Fagus grandifolia and Quercus spp. provide pollen for bees. Bees also get honeydew from Quercus spp. galls which are rather common (Gagne, 1989; Redfern, 2011; Russo, 2007). Gypsy moths are a pest threatening Oaks currently. Oaks also provide food for many other insects as well (Tallamy, 2009).

Invasiveness:

None known

Dye Plants:

European Chestnut (Castanea sp.), Fagus spp., Quercus spp. (citation)

Other Crafts:

Endless crafts can be made from the woods of all members of the Fagaceae. Acorns from Quercus spp. offer excellent craft opportunities as well. i especially like the variation in Acorn tops which have served as fairy hats to enterprising folk artists like my friend Sarah Hinds. White Oak baskets are one of the mainstays of Appalachian craft (Fariello, 2009; S. H. Hill, 1997; Law & Taylor, 1991; Stephenson, 1977).

Aesthetics:

Most members of the Fagaceae are stunningly beautiful landscape trees that often hold on to many of their leaves in the fall. They can get to be quite large and old especially in open grown environments. One famous example is the Angel Oak in South Carolina.

Miscellaneous:

There is a great publication available online detailing the Oaks of eastern North America (Stein et al., 2012). Another covers the Oaks of California (Pavlik et al., 1993). One covers the whole continent (H. A. Miller & Lamb, 1984). Lastly there are many resources for the Oaks of Central/South America as well (Herrera & Chaverri, 2006; Hertel et al., 2003; Holz et al., 2002; Holz & Robbert Gradstein, 2005; Kappelle, 2008, 2010; Kappelle & Juarez; Kappelle & van Uffelen, 2006).

The International Oak Society has a nice online article about the phenomenon known as marcescense that describes how Fagaceae members often hold on to their leaves after they turn brown.

The BBC also has an article about the vanishing stream Oaks of Mexico.

Hamamelidaceae/Witchazel Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n)	Genera	3	Genera	30
Species	3(n)	Species	5	Species	112
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Taxonomic Commentary:

Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) was traditionally included in this family but now has been move to the Altingiaceae

Blue Ridge Genera:

Fothergilla (1) Hamamelis (1)

Food:

Medicine:

Witchazel (Hamamelis virginiana) is still famous and sold in stores distilled and added to alcohol used for topical skin applications.

Toxicity:

Insects:

Invasiveness:

None known

Dye Plants:

Aesthetics:

Lots of members are beautiful to behold including Witchalder (Fothergilla spp.), Witchazels (Hamamelis spp.) and the exotic non-invasive Chinese Fringe Flower (Loropetalum chinense) Persian Ironwood (Parrotia persica) Winterhazel (Corylopsis spp.).

Aromatics:

Some members of the Hamamelidaceae have fabulous smells.

Other Crafts:

Wood for water witching to divine the location of water.

Juglandaceae/Walnut Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	3	Genera	8
Species	9(n)	Species	23	Species	60
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	16

Blue Ridge Genera:

Carya (7), Juglans (2) Wofford excluded: Pecan (Carya illionensis).

Food:

Many species provide choice edible nuts including Mockernut Hickory (Carya tomentosa) Pecan (C. illionensis), Sweet Hickory (C. laciniosa), Shagbark Hickory (C. ovata), Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) and Butternut (J. cinerea). The sap from several genera and species has been consumed by various peoples (Couplan, 1998). English Walnut (Juglans regia) is famous the whole world over. A type of Walnut (Juglans neotropica) even grows in the Andes of South America!

Medicine:

The hulls from the Juglans nigra are used as an anti-parasitic. Following the doctrine of signatures English Walnut is purported to be good for brain health.

Toxicity:

Juglone in the root of Juglans nigra is alleleopathic to many plants. Juglans nigra can also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on various nuts.

Insects:

Carya spp. are important for bees as a source of pollen and honeydew.

Invasiveness:

Juglans nigra is prone to come up strong in open farm fields left uncultivated. Every member of the family represented in Wofford is native to the Blue Ridge.

Dye Plants:

All of the above species can be used for dyes. Some are colorfast without mordants.

Other Crafts:

Juglans spp. and Carya spp. woods are highly valued for a diversity of crafts including veneers, paneling, carving, utensils etc. Carya spp. are also used for BBQ woodchips.

Aesthetics:

Most members make striking landscape trees. Hickory leaves have a beautiful mustard yellow color in the fall.

Aromatics:

Leaves and bark of Hickory (Carya spp.) and Walnut (Juglans spp.) are aromatic.

Lauraceae/Bay Leaf Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	13	Genera	50
Species	2(n)	Species	40	Species	2500-2750
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	4

Blue Ridge Genera:

Lindera (1), Sassafras (1)

Western Genera: California Bay Laurel (Umbellularia californica)

This is an aromatic, ancient and mostly tropical family

Food:

Fruits of Spice Bush (Lindera benzoin) are used like allspice. Twigs and leaves of Spice Bush and Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are used in tea. Roots of Sassafras have a tradition of use for root beer. Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) is popular as a pot herb. Leaves of California Bay (Umbellularia californica) can be used like Bay leaves though they are stronger in taste. Nuts have also been consumed when prepared properly through roasting. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) is famous as a flavoring spice and also is a potent medicinal. The famous fruit Avocado (Persea spp.) is in this family. Red Bay in the same genus (Persea spp.) grows in Florida and its leaves have been used for flavoring.

Toxicity:

Presence of the phytochemical safrole has led to disuse of Sassafras. However its toxicity is less than many commonly consumed substances including beer (Duke & Foster, 1999). The master’s thesis of Kate Cummings (2012) is available for consultation on this topic at greater depth in relation to different forms of preparation and the resulting safrole content. Consumption in moderation is probably prudent. California Bay is the carrier of Sudden Oak Death and fruits may be poisonous raw.

Birds:

Fruits of various members from the Lauraceae are relished by birds in their long migration south for the winter ad once they arrive to the tropics or for locals that live there already.

Invasiveness:

Camphor Tree in Florida (Cinnamomum camphora)

Dye Plants:

Sassafras can be used as a dye plant (Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967). Fern Freud, one of my favorite foragers with a presence online under the handle Foraged by Fern has a neat video dying a white clothing article pink with the pit and husk of Avocado.

Aesthetics:

Most members of the Lauraceae are attractive at all times of year.

Aromatics:

Bark, leaves, flowers are often aromatic for most members of the Lauraceae.

Magnoliaceae/Magnolia Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	2	Genera	2-3-10
Species	6(n)	Species	11	Species	220
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Taxonomic commentary:

This is a small family with primitive flower characteristics and a distinct link to Eastern Asia.

Blue Ridge Genera:

Liriodendron (1), Magnolia (5)

Food:

The copious nectar from Tulip Tree flowers can be consumed. The leaves of Sweet Bay (Magnolia virginiana) are used like bay laurel leaves in cooking. The flowers of Cucumber Magnolia can be eaten and the flowers and buds of several Asian species as well as young and tender leaves have been eaten in different parts of Asia (Couplan, 1998). My friend, colleague and fellow forager Robin Harford makes particularly delectable food items including a syrup from M. liliiflora.

Toxicity:

Magnolia grandiflora can cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects:

Tulip tree (L. tulipifera) is one of the major bee trees in the Appalachian region.

Invasiveness:

None known though Tulip Tree can quickly take over abandoned farm fields and outpace the growth of sometimes more desirable hardwoods in forest situations due to a strategy of long lasting buried seeds.

Dye Plants:

Liriodendron tulipifera can be used as a dye (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Aesthetics:

The exotic but not invasive Saucer Magnolia (M. x soulangeana) and Star Magnolia (M. stellata) make beautiful landscape plants. Many species native to North America are planted for ornament as well.

Aromatics:

Many members of the Magnoliaceae have fabulous smells.

Other Crafts:

The fruiting structure of Magnolia can be used ornamentally. Magnolia wood is a classic one used in carving and making bowls. Tulip tree wood is also used in carving, basket making and wood siding.

Malvaceae/Mallow Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n) 2(i)	Genera	41	Genera	115
Species	5(n) 8(i)	Species	260	Species	2000
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	93

Blue Ridge Genera:

Abutilon (1), Hibiscus (3,2), Iliamna (1), Malva (3), Sida (1,2)

Wofford excluded Alcea rosea, Malva rotundifolia and Modiola caroliniana.

Food:

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is a cultivated crop that is famous in the south. Most leaves can be consumed raw, cooked or as tea including Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis), Mallow (Malva spp.) flowers are edible as are almost all species in the family. The calyces of African Rosemallow or Roselle (Hibiscus acetosella and H. sabdariffa) make a fabulous beverage. Rose of Sharon (H. syriacus) is imminently edible for flowers and cooked greens. Chocolate (Theobroma cacao) formerly from the Sterculiaceae is now in this family as well. Basswood (Tilia spp.) formerly of the Tiliaceae leaves and flowers are edible and useful for tea.

Toxicity:

The Malvaceae is generally considered a non-toxic family with the exception of cottons (Gossypium spp.)

Insects:

Hollyhock (Alcea rosea) is popular with bees.

Invasiveness:

Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) can become locally invasive. Malva spp. can spread readily. Hollyhocks are also naturalized throughout the USA. Largeleaf Linden (Tilia platyphyllos) and Littleleaf Linden (T. cordata) and their cross T. x europaea are naturalized in the northeastern USA.

Dye Plants:

Cotton (Gossypium spp.) (A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974). Hibiscus spp. (Buchanan, 1995; Fern, 2009) and Malva spp. (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009).

Aesthetics:

Many members have beautiful flowers including Hibiscuses (Hibiscus spp.) and Hollyhocks (Alcea spp.).

Moraceae/Mulberry Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3 (n)	Genera	14	Genera	37
Species	1 (n) 3 (i)	Species	29	Species	1050
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	2

Taxonomic commentary:

Blue Ridge Genera:

Broussonetia (1), Maclura (1), Morus 1(n) 1(i)

Food:

The fruits of Mulberries are a famous food. Figs (Ficus carica) are also legendary. Che (Cudrania tricuspidata) is sometimes grafted onto Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera). The leaves of Mulberry also have tradition as well.

Toxicity:

Antiaris and Naucleopsis are used as arrow poisons (Heywood et al., 2007).

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) is invasive in eastern USA and White Mulberry (Morus alba) throughout North America. Black Mulberry (M. nigra) is introduced in at least LA, KY, OH, TX, WV.

Dye Plants:

Osage Orange is a famous natural dye plant as is Fustic (Maclura tinctoria).

Aesthetics:

Many of these species make for physically beautiful specimens. Osage Orange can have big spines!

Aromatics:

Other Crafts:

Osage Orange has beautiful wood for carving.

Oleaceae/Olive Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n) 2(i)	Genera	12	Genera	25
Species	5(n) 2(i)	Species	68	Species	570
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	16

Blue Ridge Genera:

Chionanthus (1), Forsythia (1), Fraxinus (4), Ligustrum (1)

Food:

The Olive family is not very well known for food and the things consumed in such a way often need to be processed. Olives (Olea europea) are the most famous. I have more recently become aware of some of my favorite Foragers like Fern Freud and Alexis Nikole Nelson using the flowers of Lilac (Syringa sp.) as a flavoring agent as well.

Toxicity:

Some members are outright poisonous.

Insects:

Members of the Oleaceae are often very popular with flying insects.

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Some of the most beautiful carved utensils and bowls i have ever seen are made out of Olive wood. Ash wood is famous in basketry especially in the Midwestern USA.

Aesthetics:

Many plants like Fringe Tree (Chionanthus spp.), Lilacs (Syringa spp.) and Privets (Ligustrum spp.) are planted ornamentally and for their fragrant flowers.

Pinaceae/Pine Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	4(n)	Genera	7	Genera	12
Species	11(n)	Species	72	Species	225
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	35

Blue Ridge Genera:

Abies (2), Picea (1), Pinus (6), Tsuga (2)

Wofford excluded: Larch (Larix decidua) and Norway spruce (Picea abies)

Number for world genera and species from D.J. Mabberly (2008).

Food:

Tea and beer can be made from the needles of Pine (Pinus spp.). Spruces (Picea spp.) are famous in Alaska for beer and various other applications as well, stretching from the ancient practices of the Tlingit, to the use by Captain Cook in the 1700s to help prevent scurvy in his crew. The sap from Picea spp. can be used like a chewing gum according to a personal conversation with Doug Elliot.

Toxicity:

The smoke from resinous yellow Pines especially their cones should not be inhaled in large quantities. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) can cause contact dermatitis (L. S. Nelson et al., 2007). The resin present in needles should also not be consumed in large quantities and a cold versus hot extraction in tea is sometimes preferred for this reason (Elpel, 2013).

Insects:

Pine Bark beetles are a problem from coast to coast in the United States (Jose et al., 2007; Richardson, 2000). Various adelgids attack a number of members of this family as well.

Biodiversity Support:

Many members of the Pinaceae have special relationships with various birds adapted to consume their seeds.

Dye Plants:

Spruce (Picea spp.) (A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis,1967)

Hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis and T. caroliniana) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Moerman, 1998; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

Pines (Pinus spp.) (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2008)

Other Crafts:

Endless crafts can be pursued using the cones alone. White pine wood is generally considered more choice than yellow pine wood. White pines tend to have needles grouped in 5’s. This is probably the most important family in the world for timber. Spruces are used for various medicinal preparations and other crafts. Pine needle baskets are especially famous (K. L. Armstrong, 1986; Mallow, 2010; McFarland & O’Hara, 1993; Millikin & Chambers, 2018; Rowan, 2012).

Aesthetics:

Many species make great evergreen landscape trees and are often used as Christmas trees as well. Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana) can tend to look trashy as it gets older with many dead persistent branches and Eastern White Pine (P. strobus) is susceptible to tremendous damage even in large healthy trees during winter storms. That said many of the most stunning trees of the hundreds of species i have met are in the Pine family mostly from the western United States including Bristlecone Pine (P. aristata), Coulter’s Pine (P. coulteri), Gray Pine (P. sabiana) Ponderosa Pine (P. ponderosa) and Sugar Pine (P. lambertiana).

However, i have a special place in my heart for the southeastern Longleaf Pine (P. palustris) who’s ecology, ethnobotany, tragic history and potential restoration has been documented extensively (Earley, 2006; Finch, 2012; Jose et al., 2007; Kirkman & Jack, 2017; Kwiatkowski, 2015; Latham, 2013; Neel et al., 2012; Outland, 2004; Streich, 2012; Way, 2011).

Rosaceae/Rose Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	20(n) 3(i)	Genera	67	Genera	85-100
Species	83(n) 19(i)	Species	842	Species	2000
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	406		1,300-1500

Taxonomic Commentary:

The taxonomy of Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) and Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.) is very messy (Lance, 2004). A whole book has been dedicated to the Hawthorns alone in an attempt to whittle down the over 1,000 named species in the southeast to around 200 proper species after eliminating synonyms (Lance, 2014).

Blue Ridge Genera:

Agrimonia (5), Alchemilla (1), Amelanchier (5), Aronia (2), Aruncus (1) Crataegus (19,1), Dalibarda (1), Duchesnea (1), Filipendula (1), Fragaria (2), Geum (7), Malus (2,1), Physocarpus (1), Porteranthus (2), Potentilla (4,2), Prunus (7,4), Pyrus (1), Rosa (5,4), Rubus (11,3), Sanguisorba (1), Sorbus (1), Spiraea (5,1), Waldsteinia (2)

Wofford excluded: Potentilla anserine, P. intermedia, P. rivalis, Prunus caroliniana, Rosa bracteata, R. x damascena, R. gallica, Rubus discolor, R. illecebrosus, Sanguisorba minor, Spiraea prunifolia, S. salicifolia, S. x vanhouttei.

Food:

This is one of the major families for fruits in the temperate world including Apples (Malus spp.), Pears (Pyrus spp.), Quinces (Cydonia, Chaenomeles), Strawberries (Fragaria spp.). Almonds, Apricots, Cherries, Nectarines, Peaches, and Plums are all in the same genus (Prunus spp.). Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), Chokeberry (Aronia spp.) and Mountain Ash/Rowan (Sorbus spp.) are a few wild genera that are foraged for food. Many shrubs including cane fruits (Rubus spp.) and Roses (Rosa spp.) also are edible. Apple wood is used to smoke food as well. The flowers are consumed in various ways with the Japanese traditions with the Cherry (Sakura) flowers being some of the most fascinating (Hachisu, 2015).

Toxicity:

Cyanogenic glycocides are present in some members of the Rosaceae (L.S. Nelson et al., 2007). Some people are allergic to members of the Rosaceae such as Strawberries. Agrimony (Agrimonia spp.) and Tea Rose (Rosa x odorata) can cause contact dermatitis in particular (Nelson et al., 2007). Triterpine saponins occur in the Rosaceae too (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).

Insects:

Most plants in the Rosaceae provide copious amounts of early pollen and nectar for bees. Japanese Beetles can be a pest on members of this family. Black Cherry (Prunus serotina) is one of the greatest supporters/targets of insects (Tallamy, 2009).

Invasiveness:

Shrubby Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and Eelkek (R. mollucanus) both are not listed in Wofford (1989) but are high priority invasives for many states. Wineberry (R. phoenicolasius) can be somewhat invasive locally. Wild Strawberry (Duchesnea indica), Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla recta) and Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana) can be invasive. Japanese spiraea (Spiraea japonica) is an exotic invasive shrub. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) is one of the worst exotic invasives in the eastern U.S. covering many million acres alone (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989) However, some predators both microbiological and entomological are working to reduce the multiflora population (Amerine, 2000; Kay et al., 1995).

Dye Plants:

Apples (Malus spp.) Cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), Pear (Pyrus communis), Plum (Prunus americana), Peach (P. persica), Wild Black Cherry (P. serotina). Brambles (Rubus fruticosus, R. idaeus, and R. tricolor). An incredible 124 species of Prunus and 158 species of Rubus have been listed as dyes (Fern, 2008)!

Other Crafts:

Wood is good for carving.

Aesthetics:

Many members of the Rosaceae have beautiful flowers, attractive fruits and nice bark. Japanese Cherries have their own literature in this regard (Kuitert & Peterse, 1999).

Aromatics:

Many members of the Rosaceae are famous for their smells and often employed in Potpourri.

Salicaceae/Willow Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2	Genera	2	Genera	2
Species	10(n) 4(i)	Species	117	Species	385
Lower taxa	3	Lower Taxa	95

Blue Ridge Genera:

Populus (3,2) Salix (7,2)

Wofford excluded: Populus x canescens, Populus nigra, Salix caprea, S. cinerea ssp. cinerea, S. cinerea ssp. oleifolia, S. pentandra, and S. purpurea.

Medicine:

Willows are famous for their salicylic acid compounds that act like aspirin to bring about pain relief when applied in sufficient dosage (Foster & Hobbs, 2002; Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Willows (Salix spp.) provide early food to bees in the late winter time.

Invasiveness:

Silver poplar (Populus alba) can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006).

Dye Plants:

Many willows have been used as dyes including (S. alba, S. caprea, S. cinerea, S. fragilis, S. purpurea, and S. viminalis).

Other Crafts:

Many species of Willows are used for basketry (Trestain, 1998). Living fences and structures have also been formed out of Willow. Various species are coppiced. The unopened inflorescences are famous as additions to floral arrangements as well.

Aesthetics:

Many species of both genera are valued landscape plants especially Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica). Willows and Poplars are some of the most cold-hardy deciduous trees. They light up places with their beautiful yellow leaves in the fall.

Santalaceae/Sandlewood Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	4(n)	Genera	8	Genera	40
Species	4(n)	Species	14	Species	490
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	8

Blue Ridge Genera:

Buckleya (1), Comandra (1), Nestronia (1), Pyrularia (1)

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Simaroubaceae/Tree of Heaven Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1(i)	Genera	8	Genera	18
Species	1(i)	Species	10	Species	115
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	4

Blue Ridge Genera:

Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) is a quickly spreading exotic invasive

Medicine:

This family is famous for medicinal compounds and Tree of Heaven has been studied in this regard (Duke & Foster, 2014; Scott, 2010).

Toxicity: ?

Tree of Heaven is alleleopathic (Heisey, 1990, 1996; Lawrence et al., 1991).

Insects:

Tree of Heaven is a host for the exotic invasive Spotted Lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula). Research on biological control for Tree of Heaven is ongoing (Ding, Reardon, et al., 2006; Ding, Wu, et al., 2006).

Invasiveness:

Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) is a quickly spreading exotic invasive (Buck, 2002).

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Tree of Heaven is grown around the world for wood pulp (Heywood et al., 2007).

Aesthetics:

Staphyleaceae/Bladdernut Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1 (n)	Genera	2	Genera	3
Species	1 (n)	Species	3	Species	46
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Blue Ridge Genera:

Staphylea (1)

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Some Turpinia spp. are harvested for timber (Heywood et al., 2007).

Aesthetics:

Several species of Staphylea cultivated as ornamentals for their flowers and showy fruits (Heywood et al., 2007).

Styracaceae/Storax Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2	Genera	2	Genera	11
Species	2(n)	Species	10	Species	150
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	7

Blue Ridge Genera:

Halesia (1) Styrax (1)

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Symplocaceae/Sweetleaf Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1(n)	Genera	1	Genera	1
Species	1(n)	Species	4	Species	320
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Blue Ridge Genera:

Symplocos (1)

Food:

South American species used for tea (Heywood et al., 2007).

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Famous dye plant for a source of yellow (Heywood et al., 2007).

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Theaceae/Tea Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1 (n)	Genera	7	Genera	7
Species	2 (n)	Species	12	Species	200-400
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Blue Ridge Genera:

Stewartia (1)

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Beautiful small tree landscape plants both in bark and flower

Thymelaeaceae/Mezereum Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1 (n)	Genera	6	Genera	45
Species	1 (n)	Species	21	Species	800
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	5

Blue Ridge Genera:

Dirca (1)

Medicine:

Toxicity: ?

Members from this family in the Daphne genus are famous as being very toxic and potentially deadly. Not sure what that means for Dirca which i have never heard reported in a similar way but caution is advised.

Insects:

Invasiveness:

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

This family is famous for fragrant flowers.

Ulmaceae/Elm Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	5	Genera	15
Species	6(n)	Species	23	Species	130
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	7

Taxonomic Commentary:

Celtis (3) included in the Elm family traditionally as in all the sources above but now moved to the Cannabaceae.

Blue Ridge Genera:

Ulmus (3)

Medicine:

The bark of Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra) is a famous medicinally (Duke & Foster, 2014).

Toxicity: ?

Insects:

Invasiveness:

English Elm (Ulmus procera), Siberian Elm (U. pumila), Small Leaf Elm (U. parvifolia) and Wych Elm (U. glabra) are all naturalized in the USA.

Dye Plants:

Other Crafts:

Aesthetics:

Siberian Elm has beautiful bark and many species of the genus will grow very large in size traditionally.

Vitaceae/Grape Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n)	Genera	4	Genera	12-14
Species	11(n)	Species	40	Species	800
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	9

Blue Ridge Genera:

Ampelopsis (2), Parthenocissus (1), Vitis (8) Wofford excluded: Ampelopsis brevipendunculata

Food:

Grapes (Vitis spp.) are commonly used fresh and for jams, jellies, juices, wines, etc. Some are bigger and better than others. Leaves of Vitis spp. have also been consumed most famously as dolmas from Greece.

Toxicity:

Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) and Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata) contain irritant raphides (Nelson et al., 2007). Ampelopsis spp?

Insects:

Ampelopsis spp. and Parthenocissus spp. are good honey plants.

Invasiveness:

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata

Dye Plants:

Grapes (Vitis spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) (Fern, 2008).

Other Crafts:

The vines of various species can be used to make baskets but should only be used when abundant.

Conclusion

Well that was quite the tour of most of the woody plants families of the temperate world. These plants are so important in so many ways. My hope is that we will all realize that more and take planting trees as a necessity to explore.

For the next class we will cover major Craft plant families and it will be posted around August 13th.

Below are items to think about/comment on. Please write me directly at marc@botanyeveryday.com or leave information at the Facebook group.

i WOULD REALLY LOVE TO HEAR WHAT YOU HAVE TO SAY!!!

- Make a list of the woody plants around you and share that info with some people

-Start a collection of leaves from the various species you can find

- Think of a craft you can make with woody plants

- Attend a workshop or a class and write up a brief description of plants or information learned.

- Post any clear photos of question plants to Facebook or send in an email.

Praises to all that have donated to the cause. i encourage everyone reading this to donate as they are able financially, commentarialy, or energetically... Your contributions greatly help me continue this crucial work of ethnobotanical research and education. Please let me know your thoughts in general and anyway i can help this class serve you best.

Thanks, marc

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