2014 Plant Talk 12 Woody Plants

Plant Talk 11: Woody Plants

 Hello plant enthusiasts…

 Recent Events

Well it’s been a busy week here in southern Appalachia!

On Monday i went to visit The Farm a Gathering Place which is the site of a garden plan i did this winter. The owners of this beautifully rustic wedding and event facility want to move towards growing food for the catering endeavors held there. i am pleased to say that due to the hard work of another Warren Wilson graduate and others that things are really flourishing. In particular i saw the most beautiful and big leaved Malabar Spinach (Basella sp.) ever while visiting. This is an interesting plant from the Basellaceae that grows like a vine but unlike “true” spinach can tolerate the heat of the summer sun.

Frank Cook Memorial

On Tuesday we held a memorial at Herb Mtn Farm which is also home of our local Kombucha manufacturer Buchi. Buchi is my favorite kombucha ever and they use a plethora of superfood and immune boosting ingredients. In the morning, i worked with students from the Urban Farm School and Ashevillage to do some trail maintenance. In the afternoon we did a plant walk and then segued into Mead bottling and making, a potluck dinner, Frank Cook memorial film showing and fire circle. The mead we bottled was started on Frank’s birthday and contained Hemlock Reishi mushrooms (Ganoderma tsugae) collected from a class i participated with and taught by Frank’s friend and colleague Alan Muskat. Other ingredients were from a class i did called Sharing Nature’s Abundance out of Hot Springs, NC and the Sunny Bank Inn. This is a place Frank frequented and taught at regularly. The ingredients included Black Birch (Betula lenta), Honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis), Yellowroot (Xanthorhiza simplicissima) and New Jersey Tea (Ceonothus americanus). The new mead we made had over 20 different ingredients from 12 local locations. From Herb Mtn we collected Honewort, Chocolate Mint, Mtn Mint, Lemon Balm and Apple Cider.  From Eagle Feather Farm we used Violet, Nettles, Ginseng, Horny Goat Weed, and Turkey Tail mushrooms. We had Asian Pears from Patrick Ironwood and Moonshadow, Currants from my adopted grandma Elly, Strawberries from Shannon Post and Earth Fare, Blueberries from Rob Messick, Elderberries from Pickard’s Mtn, Bugleweed (Lycopus sp.) from Warren Wilson College, Lime leaves that a Caribbean researcher gave me at the Society for Economic Botany conference, Chaga (Inonotus obliqus) from Eric Lewis, Astragalus from Mountain Rose, Mtn Ash from Black Balsam on the Blue Ridge parkway and Asian Dogwood from my student Julie Douglas!!!

No Taste Like Home

Wednesday i taught for the program run by Alan Muskat. These “tours” have more of a focus on mushrooms. We found many Chanterelles, Boletes, Slippery Jacks (Suillus pictus), Milk Mushrooms (Lactarius volemus, Lactarius corrugis and L. spp.) and other assorted but non-edible fungi i.e. (Calastoma citrina, Clitocybe spp., Amanita spp.) as well as Black Birch, Sassafras and Sourwood.

Speaking of Gardening

Yesterday and today i have been privileged to attend my first Speaking of Gardening symposium at the NC Arboretum due to a scholarship received from the NC Master Gardeners. Very inspirational!

Eagle Feather Farm anniversary

Shortly i head to Eagle Feather Farm to lead a plant walk and make a mead for their 20^th anniversary.

Living Web Farms foraging

Tomorrow i will make a wild foods lunch for folks attending a foraging class led by the incomparable Doug Elliot and Ken Crouse at Living Web Farms.

Never a dull moment to be sure!

Upcoming events

            In the next few weeks i will be teaching at Jim Duke’s Green Farmacy in Fulton, MD, Eden Valley nearby, Warren Wilson College as part of the Organic Grower’s School Harvest Conference and for the students through the Wellness department, Pickard’s Mtn outside Chapel Hill, NC, and the Hostel in the Forest outside Brunswick, GA. Go to the Botany Every Day events tab on the website to learn more details. Hope to see yall around! http://www.botanyeveryday.com/events

Major Tree/Woody Plant Families Occurring around Appalachia and other Temperate Places

         The focus of the current class is woody plants. The study of trees is called dendrology (Hardin, Leopold, & White, 2001). Silviculture is a rather academic term and practice that deals with the raising of trees often times for lumber purposes (Nyland, 2007; Puettmann, 2008; Smith, Larson, Kelty, & Ashton, 1996; G. Williams, 1979). A number of publications are available geared more towards landowners while often taking wider management concerns into account (Beattie & Levine, 1993; Hansen, Severson, & Waterman, 2011; Hilts & Mitchell, 2009).

Much of this information comes from my graduate research on the plants of Appalachia like many of the classes this year. However, it has since been expanded to cover information about woody plants from other temperate areas and a bit about subtropical/tropical areas as well. Here are featured 22 of the approximately one hundred and sixty plant families occurring in the Blue Ridge part of Appalachia (Wofford, 1989). The focus is on families that include a majority of woody species. Families are listed here in monographs because they have members representing a multitude of uses across a broad spectrum of topics. All families are listed alphabetically by botanical name. A common name corresponding to the typic genus for the family accompanies the title. In the case of the Aquifoliaceae and Caprifoliaceae there is no corresponding typic genus known and another common name has been chosen.

         Due to time constraints some notable families that are useful or make up a sizable part of the Appalachian woody flora have been excluded. These include Witchhazel (Hamamelidaceae), Mulberry (Moraceae), Olive (Oleaceae), and Elm (Ulmaceae). The references consulted for the statistics of family geographic representation include Flowering Plant Families of the World (Heywood, Brummitt, Culham, & Seberg, 2007), Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Blue Ridge (Wofford, 1989)  and a Synonynized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the United States, Canada and Greenland (Kartesz, 1994). The work by the Karteszs also covers Puerto Rico, Hawaii and the Virgin islands. Heywood et al. split some families up that are considered as larger in the older sources of Wofford and Kartesz. Notations are included in the discussion of taxonomy for individual families. Several other books might be worth referencing for those interested in plant family patterns. (Castner, 2004; W. S. Judd, Campbell, Kellog, Stevens, & Donahue, 2008; Raven, Evert, & Eichhorn, 2004; Zomlefer, 1994). New references i have come across recently include (Group, 2009; Mabberley, 2008; Simpson, 2010; Soltis, 2005; Spichiger, Savolainen, Figeat, & Jeanmonod, 2004; Woodland, 2009).

The role of trees is something important to consider. Pragmatically trees provide habitat, food, building materials, textiles, shade, paper, carbon sequestration and many more services as well. However, on an energetic note, certain trees have given me more solace than any person ever could. Trees have played many other spiritual and intangible roles in society as well (Altman, 2000; Caldecott, 1993; Hageneder, 2005; Hugo, 2011; Wells, 2010). The history of trees in general is rather fascinating (Thomas, 2014; Wells, 2010). Many people think of Native Americans as passive in their influence on the forest. However, a literature has developed that shows a much more active role in managing arboreal ecosytems (Abrams & Nowacki, 2008; Delcourt, Delcourt, Ison, Sharp, & Gremillion, 1998; Delcourt & Delcourt, 1998).

Trees in urban environments have very particular needs and constraints (E. F. Gilman, 1997; Watson, 1998). Gingko biloba is a particularly popular addition to cityscapes and is the London Plane tree (Platanus x acerifolia). Elms were a historical favorite that was afflicted by Dutch Elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi) a few decades ago and lost to the cityscape for that reason. Tree planting and care is an art that may take much study to master (E. Gilman, 2001; Watson, 1994, 2005). Selecting the right tree for the landscape can be aided by a number of good resources as well (Dirr, 1997, 1998; Flint, 1997; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998).

Edible landscaping is becoming more and more popular these days (Creasy, 1982; M. Judd, 2013; Kourik & Kane, 1986). One type of edible landscaping dealing with trees in particular is called Forest Gardening (Crawford, 2010; Hart, 1996; Jacke & Toensmeier, 2005a, 2005b; Whitefield, 1998). Village Homes outside of Davis, CA is one excellent example of forest gardening being implemented on community scale (Corbett & Corbett, 2000).

Conifers vs Broadleaves

         One of the biggest distinctions in the tree world is between hardwoods also known as broadleaves and conifers. Conifers are a more ancient lineage with a once wider distribution.  A number of great references cover the amazing world of conifers (Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 2008, 2010; E. L. Little, n.d.).

Conifers

The two main families of conifers include the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Pinaceae members tend to have needles in different numbers and arrays in place of broad leaves. Pine (Pinus), Fir (Abies), Spruce (Picea), Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga), Hemlock (Tsuga), Classic Cedar (Cedrus) and Larch (Larix) are all included in this family. These genera also tend to have vitamin C in their needles which may come in hand in the case of being cut off from traditional sources. However, too much intake of Pinaceae needle tea can be damaging due to the presence of resins (Elpel, 2013).

            Cupressaceae members often have foliage with imbricate (layered) scales that are sharp to the touch. The most common members are Juniper (Juniperus) and Cypress (Cupressus). Many trees that formerly went by Cupressus in the Americas have changed to the genus (Callitropsis) (Judd et al., 2008).  Thuja and Chamaecyparis occur in the east and the west and go by a host of common names including types of Cedar. Incense Cedar (Calocedrus) is a common genus in the western United States. i am aware of a few resources for the study of western trees specifically (Earle, Spellenberg, & Nelson, 2014; E. L. Little, 1976; Petrides, 1998b, 2005; Sudworth, 1967).

             The formerly separate members of Taxodiaceae are now included within the Cupressaceae family (Judd et al., 2008). North American members include California Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) and Bald Cypress (Taxodium spp.). Dawn Redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) was a species thought to be extinct until it was found in the 1940s’ (Judd et al., 2008). This sub-family holds the tallest and biggest tree titles for the planet and also some of the oldest trees as well. Bald Cypress and Dawn Redwood also belie the title evergreen as they both lose their leaves in the winter. Larch from the Pinaceae is another example in this regard. Other more exotic genera traditionally included in the Taxodiaceae include Cryptomeria, Athrotaxis, Cunninghamia, Glyptostrobus, Sciadopitys, and Taiwania.

              Smaller families of conifers include the Yew (Taxaceae), Podocarp (Podocarpaceae), Monkey Puzzle (Araucariaceae), Umbrella Pine (Sciadopitayaceae) and interestingly the not needled and monogeneric Ginkgo (Ginkgoaceae). The Podocarp and Monkey Puzzle families often occur in the Southern Hemisphere. One of the largest trees i have ever encountered was a Podocarpus centuries/millenia old growing near 10,000 ft  elevation and the Cerro de la Muerte in Costa Rica. It is located on the Seeyle family land which i highly recommend visiting if you are ever in the area www.lasvueltas.com. It took over 15 people to make a ring around this massive elder tree and is one of my greatest memories from travels with Frank Cook.

            In the northern temperate regions conifers tend to grow on more harsh sites. Some examples include dry, fire prone, windswept, acidic, snow buried or frigidly cold. They tend to have more shallow roots, thicker bark and sometimes quicker growth as some adaptations for their chosen path. Most of them will not sprout from stumps. Redwoods are a notable exception. More conifers are put into plantations than probably any other trees. Pines in particular are popular in this regard i.e. Loblolly (Pinus taeda), Slash (Pinus elliotii) and Monterey (Pinus radiata).

The Hemlock Wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and Balsam Wooly adelgids (Adelges piceae) are devastating pests. The Hemlock “Reishi” mushroom (Ganoderma tsugi) is one famous associated fungal species. It is a bit of a silver lining on the fact that most Hemlocks in the east have been decimated by the adelgid pest. An entomologist friend Richard McDonald recently told me that he has high hopes for beneficial insect identified in the western U.S, that may help control the hemlock wooly adelgid in the east as well www.drmcbug.com. Pine bark beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) are another challenging insect pest. In North Carolina Pine blister rust, which is hosted on Currants (Ribes spp.) acts as a microbiological threat. Mushrooms from the family Boletaceae famously co-habitate with conifers in beneficial mycorrhizal relationships.

 A lot of wild Ericaceae members are associated with the understory of conifers out west and to a certain degree in the east as well. Members of the non-photosynthesizing Monotropaceae which has now been subsumed by the Ericaceae tend to grow along with conifers as well. The Rhododendrons within the Ericaceae have a literature all their own (Bryant, 1996, 2001; K. N. E. Cox & Glen, 1998; K. Cox, 2005; P. A. Cox & Cox, 1988; Cullen, 2005; Davidian, 1982, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c; Hawthorne, 2014; Leach, 1961; Reilly, 1992; Salley & Greer, 2005; Towe, 2004; Vanveen, 1986; Young, 1981).

Hardwoods

              Hardwoods tend to grow on nice sites and have tap roots. They are mostly deciduous in the north but often evergreen in the tropics. They often prefer more basic soils than conifers. Their diverse array of fruits also tie them into a wider web of fauna. Many specific broadleaf trees have whole industries built around them including examples like pencils, toothpicks, baseball bats and hockey sticks.

              Many of the broadleaf trees that are native to North America are currently under assault from exotic insect or disease pests (C. E. Little, 1995).  Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) has killed millions of Ash trees and continues to spread. Gypsy Moths (Lymantria spp.) and Sudden Oak Death (Phytopthora ramorum) are affecting Oaks. Dogwood Anthracnose is taking out these iconic small trees. Other species are under attack as well including Butternut (Juglans cinerea) and Red Bay (Persea borbonia). Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch Elm disease are afflictions of the last century that have radically changed forest composition in the east. The plight of tree diseases has been well documented (Brosi, 2010; Clark, Brosi, Schlarbaum, & Grissino-Mayer, 2008; Coyier & Roane, 1986).  

Woody Plant Indentification

             Flowers or fruits are always the easiest way to identify a plant in combination with the rest of the characteristics. The first characteristic that i pay attention to elsewise is leaf orientation and whether a plant is opposite or alternate. Opposite leaved plants fall into the pneumonic device MAADCapHorseSweetLove

(M) aple (A) sh (A) doxaceae (D) ogwood (CAP) rifoliaceae (Horse) Chestnut (Sapindaceae)

(Sweet) Bubby (Calycanthaceae) (Love) Heart’s a bustin (Celastraceae)

Others opposite woodies in Appalachia include the Paulowniaceae, Bignoniaceae.

             Compound versus simple leaves are the next distinguishing trait with woody plant identification especially. Compound leaves are fairly rare and more distinguished depending on leaf orientation. Opposite compound typically denotes Mochatel (Adoxaceae), Ash (Oleaceae) and Maple/Buckeye (Sapindaceae) families. Woody plants with alternate compound leaves typically fall in the Walnut (Juglandaceae), Rose (Rosaceae) or Bean (Fabaceae) families. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) (Simaroubaceae) is another pinnately compound alternate plant that is invasive in many areas especially in disturbed locales. However, like many invasive plants it is also a potent medicinal (Scott, 2010).

             Leaf margin, hairiness, buds, and scars are additional traits used in dendrological identification. Hairiness denoted by such terms as strigose, tomentose, pubescent, hirsute, stellate, pillose etc…are often reason enough for classic species delineation. Winter identification mostly depends on bark, bud type (number/shape of scales) and leaf/vascular bundle scars. We have played winter tree id in the Asheville area to much enjoyment and delight as well as humbled bafflement even in familiar terrain. Some books exist that can help specifically with winter id (Core & Ammons, 1999; Gilkey & Packard, 2001; Harlow, 1946; Jones & Wofford, 2013; Lance, 2004; Symonds, 1958; Trelease, 1967; Watts & Watts, 1970; M. D. Williams, 2007; Wojtech, 2011). Trees and shrubs can provide quite a bit of “winter interest” in the garden when selected properly (Buffin, 2005; Price, 2007; Simeone, Curtis, Barnett, & Tankersley, 2005).

            Many great references exist to help one in the exploration of woody plants and their uses (Brockman, 1986; Dirr, 1998; Elias, 1980; Hardin, Leopold, & White, 2001).  In Appalachia the references i use most are represented by a handful of books (Petrides, 1998a; Radford, Ahles, & Bell, 1968; Swanson, 1994; Weakley, 2012; Wofford, 1989) Swanson in particular is key!

            In the Sierra Nevada’s of the U.S. i have been thankful for a compact lightweight book by Petrides (2005). In the past i have also consulted a bigger more comprehensive resources for woody plants of the Western U.S. (Petrides, 1998b; Sudworth, 1967).  The Flora of the California is known as the Jepson Manual (Hickman, 1993). A new version has just been published (Baldwin, Goldman, Keil, Patterson, & Rosatti, 2012). These are the definitive resources to the over 5,000 plant taxa that occur within the Golden state.

Specific resources have been generated for the more tropical clime of Florida (Kurz & Godfrey, 1962; E. L. Little, 1978; G. Nelson, 1998). i am aware of a few references for Costa Rica as well (Céspedes & Lindquist, 2007; Condit, Pérez, & Daguerre, 2010; Poveda, Jiménez, & Zamora, 2011; V, M, & A, 2004). A couple bibliographies have been developed for information on Southern hardwoods too (W. D. Miller, 1967, 1974).

            i know of at least one good guide to trees of England (Sterry & Sterry, 2008). Comprehensive guides to the trees of the world exists as well (Russell & Cutler, 2003; Russell & Walters, 2007). A number of resources also cover trees of North America in a broad fashion (Brockman, 1986; Elias, 1980; Peattie, 2013; Russell & Cutler, 2003). Clearly a lot of awesome resources are out there in book form and certainly some great websites exist as well. One great free resource that i recently came across with numerous publications on tree care is from Bartlett Tree Experts http://www.bartlett.com/resourceList.cfm.

Monographs

            Below are monographs for most of the major woody plant families in the temperate world! Families are listed alphabetically by scientific name. Your support to develop this further is greatly encouraged. Factoids and funds could move this along to a more comprehensive place!

            Family descriptions are covered systematically. The first section includes a chart showing distribution in the world, North America and the Blue Ridge using the sources underlined in the introduction above. A modern taxonomic commentary depending on three main sources follows (Heywood, Brummitt, Culham, & Seberg, 2007; W. S. Judd et al., 2008; Weakley, 2012). Next follows a listing of genera known in Appalachia according to Wofford (1989). The number of species for each genus is in parentheses. The first number is for native species. The second number is for introduced species. The introduced species numbers are also highlighted to further show their patterns of distribution. Introduced plants in general tend to be represented by one species from an exotic genus. The native species almost always out number introduced species when contained within the same genus. A list of taxa excluded by Wofford follows.  Excluded taxa are normally reported from a limited range and are often cultivated plants that may escape locally. Within the above three botanical sections all plant names are in scientific terminology only. In the below usage categories common names precede scientific names at least the first time the plant is mentioned i.e. Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Common plant names are capitalized because to me they are at least as important as people!

            Finally, species that fit into the categories of food, medicine, poison, insect affiliation, invasiveness, dye plants, other crafts, aesthetics and aromatics are included. Foods included comprise wild and cultivated taxa. One source is the primary reference mixed with over a decade of personal experience (Couplan, 1998). Don’t ever eat flowers or other parts of plants from a florist or other synthetic chemical intensive source. Always be absolutely positive of the identification and utilization of anything you plan to consume! Medicinal notations address only some extremely important plants due to time limitations.  Invasiveness is only covered relative to Appalachia and specifically inclusion in the Blue Ridge Flora. One cited reference was used primarily (J. H. Miller, Chambliss, & Bargeron, 2006). However, personal experience with exotic invasive plants informed commentary that is not cited. Many invasive plants in Appalachia are also invasive throughout their introduced range. Plant uses by bees were compiled primarily from three comprehensive book sources with the addition of 12 years of personal experience (H. B. Lovell, 1977; J. H. Lovell, 1999; Pellett, 1977). Dye plants included are noted when not so plentiful to be confusing. For the Fabaceae and Rosaceae for instance only some dye plants of special interest are included. Highlighted sections are still a work in progress.

Aceraceae/Maple Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1(n)	Genera	1	Genera
Species and Lower taxa	8(n) 1(i)	Species	19	Species
		Lower Taxa	21

Taxonomic commentary: This family is now often included as a part of the more tropical Sapindaceae (Heywood et al., 2007; Judd et al., 2008; Weakley, 2008). That is why no distribution occurs for world scope.

Blue Ridge Genera: Acer

Food: Sap from various species. Seeds are also said to be edible (Couplan, 1998).

Insects: Provides early forage for bees in February/March

Invasives: Norway maple (Acer platanoides)

Dye Plants: Acer spp. (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

Other Crafts: Acer spp.

Aesthetics: Paper bark maple (Acer griseum) is a marvelous landscape tree with exfoliating bark. Many other “Japanese” maples i.e. A. palmatum etc. are popular landscape plants.

Anacardiaceae/Cashew Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	12	Genera	82
Species	7(n)	Species	37	Species	700+
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	22

Blue Ridge Genera: Toxicodendron (3), Rhus (4)

Food: Fruits of Sumac (Rhus spp.) have been used by Native Americans and others to make a type of pink lemonade due to malic acid. Cold infusion and straining is necessary. Heat brings out bitter tannins. Many popular exotic food stuffs are in this family. These include Pistachio (Pistacia spp.), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Mango (Mangifera indica), and Brazilian pepper (Schinus spp.).

Toxicity: Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), Poison Oak (T. toxicarium), and Poison Sumac (T. vernix) can cause severe skin irritation for susceptible individuals. Allergic reactions are known to occur for certain people with many if not all the members of this family!

Insects: Bees freely work Rhus spp. for nectar.

Invasiveness: Poison ivy is native but can quickly take over disturbed areas.

Dye Plants: Smoketree (Cotinus coggygria), Sumacs (Rhus copallina, R. copallinum, R. coriaria, R. glabra, R. hirta, R typhina) (Bliss, 1993; Cannon & Cannon, 2003; Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Moerman, 1998; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Aesthetics: Fruits of Rhus spp. make great additions to flower arrangements fresh or dry. Cotinus is a beautiful landscape plant that can also be employed in flower arrangements to striking effect.

Aquifoliaceae/Holly Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	2	Genera	1
Species	4(n)	Species	29	Species	400+
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	9

Taxonomic commentary: Nemopanthus has now been moved to Ilex (Heywood et al., 2007).

Blue Ridge Genera: Ilex (4), Nemopanthus (1)

Food: The roasted leaves of some members have been used to prepare a caffeinated beverage including Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) and Yaupon Holly (I. vomitoria) (Couplan, 1998).  Ilex cassine and I. guayusa also have significant amounts of caffeine (Edwards & Bennett, 2005; Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).

Toxicity: Triterpine saponins and their esters (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). The berries are often considered to not be edible, however, the leaves tend to be not toxic (Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007).

Insects: Gallberry (Ilex glabra) is important for bees in warmer areas (Pellett, 1976). Many other species of Ilex are good sources of nectar as well.

Wildlife: Many birds appreciate the fruits of Hollies.

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants: American Holly (Ilex opaca)

Other Crafts: Ilex spp. have traditionally been use for wood work.

Aesthetics: Many species are very attractive in the landscape for evergreen foliage and showy fruits. Plants are dioecious so males and females are required for fruiting.

Araliaceae/Spikenard Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n) 1(i)	Genera	11	Genera	41-50
Species	6(n) 1(i)	Species	49	Species	1,450
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	114

Blue Ridge Genera: Aralia (4), Hedera (1), Panax (2)

Food: The leaves and roots of Sarsparilla (Aralia californica) are used by Daniel Nicholson in California for tea. This is the only native member of Araliaceae in the state . Other members of Aralia from the Eastern U.S. have been used similarly especially in the preparation of root beer. Some young shoots of Aralia spp. have been eaten in the spring (Couplan, 1998). However, i know from direct experience that Aralia spinosa may cause some irritation especially if one tries to consume it raw.

Medicine: Multiple species of Panax are adaptogenic (Winston & Maimes, 2007) Aralia spp. may be medicinal as well. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is a major medicinal in the northwest U.S. (Pojar et al., 1994).

Toxicity:  Triterpine saponins occur in the Araliaceae including English Ivy (Hedera helix) (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Hedera helix may also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Members of Aralia may cause irritation to susceptible individuals especially if consumed raw.

Insects: Insects love members of this family in bloom.

Invasiveness: English ivy (Hedera helix) is a prolific exotic invasive.

Dye Plants: Hedera helix (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009).

Other Crafts: Vines of ivy can be used for various decorations.

Aesthetics: Hedera helix is famous for covering buildings but can cause some damage to the outside surface. Many Aralia spp. are beautiful plants with showy blossoms. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is stunning in the understory of the Pacific Northwest conifer forests.

Misc: English Ivy is one of the best plants studied for improving indoor air quality (Wolverton, 1997).

Berberidaceae/Barberry Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	5	Genera	10	Genera	12-16
Species	6(n) 1(i)	Species	35	Species	650-700
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	6

Blue Ridge Genera: Berberis (2), Caulophyllum (2), Diphylleia (1), Jeffersonia (1), Podophyllum (1)

This is a mostly vegetative family with one prominent shrubby member (Berberis) in Appalachia and a host of medicinal uses.

Food: The edible berries are sour and often need to be sweetened in the Barberry (Berberis) and cultivated Oregon grape (Mahonia) genera. Fruits of Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) may be consumed when fully ripe!!!

Medicine: Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) is a potent medicine for women’s issues. Berberine contained in many members is a powerful immune boosting anti-microbial medicine. Podophyllotoxin from Mayapple is used as an anti-cancer drug (Duke & Foster, 1999).

Toxicity: This family tests the boundaries between food, medicine and poison. Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) contains an alkaloidal convulsant poison (Nelson et al., 2007).  Podophyllum contains a mitotic inhibitor (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: Berberis spp. are attractive to bees but rarely provide much honey.

Invasiveness: The exotic Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii), Beale’s Barberry (Mahonia bealei) and Heavenly Bamboo (Nandina domestica) all can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006).

Dye Plants: Many species of Barberry (Berberis spp.) and Oregon Grapes (Mahonia spp.) can be used for dyes (Bliss, 1994; Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Aesthetics: The flowers of Oregon grape are often showy and slightly fragrant. The fruits of various Barberries and Oregon grapes are attractive. Though spiny, they can be used in flower arrangements.

Betulaceae/Birch Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	5	Genera	5	Genera	6
Species	13(n) 1(i)	Species	32	Species	130
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	47

Blue Ridge Genera: Alnus (3), Betula (7), Carpinus (1), Corylus (2), Ostrya (1)

Food: Nuts from Corylus including the European Filbert (C. avellana) and the American Hazelnut (Corylus americana). The inner bark of the Alder was eaten by Native Americans as a survival food (J. Pojar et al., 1994). Alder has also been used to smoke food.

Medicine: Alder was a typical medicine for the Native people of the Pacific Northwest (J. Pojar et al., 1994).

Toxicity: ?

Insects: Alders (Alnus spp.) are an important early source of pollen for bees.

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants:

Alder (Alnus spp.) (Bliss, 1994; Eaton, 1973; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Birch (Betula spp.) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009)

Other Crafts: Wood used by western tribes for bowls and masks (J. Pojar et al., 1994).

Aesthetics: Many species make handsome landscape trees especially Harry Lauder’s walking stick (Corylus avellana ‘contorta’). Purple leaved varieties have been developed as well.

Caprifoliaceae/Honeysuckle Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	7	Genera	11	Genera	12
Species	22(n) 4(i)	Species	82	Species	250
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	59

Taxonomic commentary: The Caprifoliaceae is a messy family in transition. Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) and Viburnums (Viburnum spp.) have been moved to Adoxaceae (Spears, 2006). A number of genera have sometimes been given their own families i.e. Sambucaceae, Diervillaceae, Linnaeaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). American Elderberries have been changed to a subspecies of the European one (Sambucus canadensis) to (Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis) (Weakley, 2008).

Blue Ridge Genera: Diervilla (3), Linnaea (1), Lonicera (3n,3i), Sambucus (2), Symphoricarpos (2), Triosteum (3), Viburnum (9) Wofford excluded: Lonicera fragrantissima and Lonicera xylosteum

Food: Fruits from Black Elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis) and Blue Elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. cerluea) are used for jelly, wine, syrup etc. Some black fruited Viburnums are edible raw (V. cassinoides, V. alnifolia, V. lantana, V. nudum, V. prunifolium, V. rufidulum) and red fruited Viburnums are best cooked (V. trilobum, V opulus) (Couplan, 1998). Fruits from the horse gentian (Triosteum perfoliatum) can be roasted as a coffee substitute (Couplan, 1998).

Medicine: Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis is a famous medicine for colds and flu. Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is a prevalent flue remedy in China used as part of the formulation Yin chiao. Crampbark (Viburnum opulus) and Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) have a long history of use for women’s health. Other species have been used medicinally by Native Americans (Moerman, 1998, 2003).

Toxicity: Sambucus contains cyanogenic glycocides and only the stemless fruits should be consumed. Some debate exists on the possible toxicity of Red Elderberry (S. racemosa) and a Black Elderberry (S. ebulus) in Europe is considered to be outright poisonous at least in one source (ANWB, 2005). Snowberry fruits (Symphoricarpos spp.) contain saponins and a small amount of chelidonine (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: Blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium) is good for stimulating early brood production. Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis is important for pollen. Most Lonicera spp. flowers have tubes too long for bees to reach their nectar. However, some bush and fly honeysuckles (L. morrowi and L. tatarica) are visited by bees. Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) is much sought after by bees when abundant.

Invasiveness: Seven taxa of Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) are introduced and invasive to various degrees though a few are not included in Wofford (1989). These include (L. japonica), Breath of Spring (L. fragrantissima), Morrow’s Honeysuckle (L. morrowii) Coral Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens), Standish’s Honeysuckle (L. standishii) Tatarian Honeysuckle (L. tatarica) and Bell’s Honeysuckle (L. x bella) (Miller et al., 2006). The native Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens) makes a great alternative to the Japanese Honeysuckle.

Dye Plants: Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Other Crafts: The exotic invasive Lonicera japonica can be used for basketry (Hill, 1997).

Aesthetics:  Many species are attractive ornamental plants and smell wonderful.

Celastraceae/Bittersweet Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3	Genera	13	Genera	93
Species	6	Species	35	Species	1200
		Lower Taxa	8

Blue Ridge Genera: Celastrus (2), Euonymus (3), Paxistima (1)

Food: Young parts of Bittersweet (Celastrus spp.) have been consumed in the past after boiling (Couplan, 1998).  Not recommended!!!

Toxicity: Celastrus fruits are said to be poisonous containing an unknown gastrointestinal irritant (Nelson et al., 2007). Khat (Catha edulis) is an addictive narcotic used in Africa in places like Somalia (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).

Insects: Native Bittersweet Celastrus scandens is worked freely by bees.         

Invasiveness: The Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) is one of the most challenging exotic invasive plants of the Appalachian region. It is distinguished from the native C. scandens that is crosses with by having terminal fruits and different shaped leaves. Winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus) and Winter Creeper (E. fortunei) can be exotic invasives though neither is considered in the Blue Ridge Flora (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989) .

Dye Plants: None known

Other Crafts:  Wreathes can be made from Celastrus orbiculatus though care should be made not to spread invasive fruits or harvest the threatened native.

Aesthetics: Euonymous spp. and Celastrus spp. have beautiful foliage and fruits in the fall.

Cornaceae/Dogwood Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	1	Genera	1	Genera	7
Species	6	Species	16	Species	105
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	8

Taxonomic commentary: The landscape plant Aucuba japonica has sometimes been included with the Cornaceae. It is now often put in its own family (Aucubaceae) (Heywood et al., 2007). Some debate remains as to whether Nyssaceae is a separate family or a subfamily of Cornaceae (Heywood et al., 2007).

Dogwoods can apparently be broken up into clades. Potentially four sections: Big plants with showy Bracts i.e. C. florida, C. kousa, Little plants with showy bracts i.e. C. canadensis. The biggest group is the small bract group broken into two parts the Cornels i.e. C. mas, C. officinalis, C. sessilis, and a much larger section of which C. alternifolia and C. ammomum are part (“Cornus (genus) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,” n.d.).  Edibility seems to follow along these grouping lines.

Blue Ridge Genera: Cornus (1)

Food: Fruits of Bunchberry (C. canadensis) and the introduced landscape plants Cornelian cherry (C. mas) and Asian Dogwood (C. kousa) are edible (Couplan, 1998). The Black Fruited Dogwood (Cornus sessilis) has been enjoyed by friends and myself in California. It is not included in Couplan (1998) but edibility is supported from other sources (Clarke, 1978; Fern, 2008).

Toxicity: Most fruits are inedible. Bloodtwig dogwood (Cornus sanguinea) can cause skin irritation (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: ?

Wildlife: The fruits of Dogwoods are appreciated by many migrating birds and represents an important food source for them.

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants: Dogwoods (Cornus spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Other Crafts: The wood of Cornus florida is very hard and dense. It may be used for mallets and other durable goods. Dogwood twigs have also been used in basketry and as toothbrushes.

Aesthetics: Many dogwoods are beautiful landscape trees with exceptional bark characteristics. Flowers wilt soon after cutting foliage. The most common native Dogwood Cornus florida is threatened by an anthracnose disease that may remove it from the natural environment.

Cupressaceae/Cypress Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	7	Genera	Other resou
Species	3(n)	Species	34	Species
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	10

Blue Ridge Genera: Juniperus (2), Thuja (1)

        Western genera include Incense Cedar (Calocedrus decurrens)

Food: Cones from Junipers (Juniperus spp.) are used in food items such as kraut and distillations i.e. gin, jenever

Toxicity: Can be toxic, use moderately…

Invasiveness: Some species of Juniperus are weedy and have taken over millions of acres (Judd et al., 2008).

Dye Plants: Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) (Eaton, 1973).

Other Crafts: Wood is highly valued and rot resistant.

Aesthetics: Many members of this family are valued in the landscape including Junipers (Juniperus spp.), Psuedo Cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.), Arborvitae (Thuja spp.) and Cypress (Cupressus spp.).

Ericaceae/Heath Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	18(n)	Genera	33	Genera	124
Species	50(n)	Species	192	Species	4050
Lower Taxa	2	Lower Taxa	112

Taxonomic commentary: This family now includes the formerly distinct Pyrolaceae and Monotropaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). Kartesz (1994) treated these two/three families separately. Their totals are compiled under Ericaceae here. No exotic members are included in Wofford. Heywood et al. include 8 subfamilies and 20 tribes.

Blue Ridge Genera: Arctostaphylos (1), Chamaedaphne (1), Chimaphila (2), Epigaea (1), Gaultheria (1), Gaylussacia (5), Kalmia (2), Leiophyllum (1), Leucothoe (3), Lyonia (2), Menziesia (1), Monotropa (2), Monotropsis (1), Oxydendrum (1), Pieris (1), Pyrola (4), Rhododendron (11), Vaccinium (10)

Food: Fruits from Blueberries/Cranberries (Vaccinium spp.) and Huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.) are relished for pies, jams, wines etc. Fruits from Manzanita (Arctostphylos spp.) are enjoyed in the western U.S.

Toxicity: Honey from several members of the Ericaceae including Rhododendron spp. may be toxic (Kingsbury, 1964; Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007; Pellett, 1977). Mountain laurels (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.) and Dog Hobble (Leucothoe spp.) are all toxic to livestock. Their wood should also probably not be burned. Sodium channel activators are present in Mtn Laurel (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.), Maleberries (Lyonia spp.), Rhododendron spp., Pernettya spp. and Doghobble (Leucothoe spp.) (Nelson et al., 2007). Grayanotoxins or andromedatoxins are usually attributed to Ericaceae toxicity.

Insects: Vaccinium and Gaylussacia provide good surplus nectar for bees. A special honey is produced in Appalachia from the Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum). Bees are also fond of Fetterbush (Pieris spp.).

Invasiveness: None of the many species included in the Blue Ridge Flora is introduced (Wofford, 1989)!

Dye Plants:

       Heath (Erica spp.) & Heather (Calluna vulgaris) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009)

       Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) and Bear berry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) (Bliss, 1994; Fern,     2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

       Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

       Blueberry (Vaccinium) spp. (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

Other Crafts: Wood from Rhododendron spp. and Mountain laurel (Kalmia spp.) is used for ornamental fence railings.

Aesthetics: Many of the plants in this family are used in the landscape especially for their spring flower displays.

Fabaceae/Bean Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	30(n) 7(i)	Genera	158	Genera	727-732
Species	80(n) 27(i)	Species	1574	Species	19000-19700
		Lower Taxa	876

This is a very important family. Most members aid in fixing nitrogen in the soil symbiotically with special bacteria that live in their roots. Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient. Therefore, many members of this family are often used as cover crops. Only a few of the members in the temperate zone are woody shrubs or trees but they are almost all significant in various ways.

Taxonomic commentary: The Fabaceae is the third biggest family in the world. The family is so big and diverse that it is often split into three sub families: Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae, Papilionoideae (Heywood et al., 2007).

Woody Blue Ridge Genera: Albizia (1), Cercis (1), Cladrastis (1), Gleditisia (1) Pueraria lobata (1), Robinia (3), Wisteria (2) W. sinensis not included in Wofford!

Food: The Fabaceae is also one of the chief sources of protein for vegetarians. Beans (Phaseolus spp.) are native to Central America (Van Wyk, 2005). Peas (Pisum sativum), Chickpeas (Cicer arientinum) and Lentils (Lens spp.) are all sources of protein for people and animal forage. Red Bud (Cercis spp.) and Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) flowers are choice edibles. Red clover leaves and flowers (Trifolium pratense) are good in tea in moderation.

Medicine: Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus), Senna (Senna alexandrina), Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Red clover (Trifolium pratense), and Silk tree/Mimosa (Albizzia julibrissin) are just a few of the famous medicinals from this family (Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).

Toxicity: Many members are toxic even possibly deadly and plants from this family should never be sampled without absolutely positive identification. Alkaloidal convulsant posion containing genera include Gymnocladus, Sophora, Laburnum and Baptisia (Nelson et al., 2007). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Rattlebox (Sesbania spp.) contain saponins (Kingsbury, 1964). Triterpine and steroidal saponins may occur in the Fabaceae in general (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Sesbania and Rattlebox (Crotalaria) contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Nelson et al., 2007). Vicia spp. and Trifolium spp. can cause photosensitivity through their effect on the liver (Kingsbury, 1964). Some people are allergic to members of the Fabaceae including soybeans (Glycine max). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and other nuts. Robinia contains a toxalbumin (Nelson et al., 2007). Wisteria spp. contains wistarine a gylcocide (Nelson et al., 2007). Other potentially toxic members include Locoweeds (Astragalus spp.), Senna (Cassia), Sweet peas (Lathyrus spp.) and Lupines (Lupinus spp.) (Blackwell, 1990).

Insects: The following plants are beloved by bees and other insects: Indigo (Baptisia spp.), Red Bud (Cercis canadensis), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Sweet Clovers (Melilotus spp.), Vetch (Vicia spp.) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum), Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and False Indigo (Amorpha spp.). Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) also provides pollen for bees. 

Invasiveness: Silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), Crown Vetch (Securigera varia), Scotch Broom (Cystisus scoparius), Korean Clover, (Kummerowia stipulaceae), Japanese Clover (K. striata), Shrubby Lespedeza (Lespedeza bicolor), Sericea Lespedeza (L. cuneata), Thunberg’s Lespedeza (L. thunbergii), Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), Black Medick (Medicago lupilina), Yellow Sweetclover (Melilotus officianalis), Kudzu (Pueraria lobata), Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia), Garden Vetch (Vicia sativa), Japanese Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda), Chinese Wisteria (W. sinensis) (Miller et al., 2006). Introduced species of Trifolium are especially prevalent in many cultivated environments.

Dye Plants: At least thirty seven species of Fabaceae are listed as used for dye (Fern, 2008). Appalachian native and naturalized genera include, Indigo (Baptisia australis) Dyer’s Indigo (B. tinctoria) and Broom (Cystisus scoparius).

Other Crafts: Beans from various members have been used for jewelry.

Aesthetics: Many members of the Fabaceae have a stunning array of attractive characteristics.

Fagaceae/Beech Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n)	Genera	5	Genera	8
Species	23(n)	Species	95	Species	620-750
		Lower Taxa	138

Blue Ridge Genera: Castanea (2), Fagus (1), Quercus (20) Wofford excluded: Quercus virginiana.

            Western members: Bush Chinkapin (Chrysolepsis sempervirens) Tanbark  

            Oak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)

Food: The Fagaceae represents an incredible food resource from every genus represented in the Blue Ridge. This family contains the Oaks (Quercus spp.), Chestnuts (Castanea spp.) and Beeches (Fagus spp.) Acorns from White Oaks such as (Quercus alba) and Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus/montana) contain lower tannin amounts and therefore need less leaching. All Oaks produce edible nuts. Some are more choice than others.

Toxicity: Tannins are present in many members and are not good to consume in high amounts. American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) contains saponins as well (Kingsbury, 1964).

Insects: Fagus grandifolia and Quercus spp. provide pollen for bees. Bees also get honeydew from Quercus spp. galls. Gypsy moths are a pest threatening Oaks currently

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants: European Chestnut (Castanea sp.), Fagus spp., Quercus spp. (citation)

Other Crafts: Endless crafts can be made from the woods of all members of the Fagaceae. Acorns from Quercus spp. offer excellent craft opportunities as well. i especially like the variation in Acorn tops which have served as fairy hats to enterprising folk artists like my friend Sarah Hinds…

Aesthetics: Most members of the Fagaceae are stunningly beautiful landscape trees that often hold on to many of their leaves in the fall. They can get to be quite large and old especially in open grown environments.

Juglandaceae/Walnut Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2(n)	Genera	3	Genera	8
Species	9(n)	Species	23	Species	60
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	16

Blue Ridge Genera: Carya (7), Juglans (2) Wofford excluded: Pecan (Carya illionensis).

Food: Many species provide edible nuts including Pecan (Carya illionensis), Sweet Hickory (C. laciniosa), Shagbark Hickory (C. ovata), Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) and Butternut (J. cinerea). The sap from several genera and species has been consumed by various peoples (Couplan, 1998). English Walnut (Juglans regia) is famous the whole world over. The sap of some species is considered edible as well (Couplan, 1998).

Medicine: The hulls from the Juglans nigra are used as an anti-parasitic.

Toxicity: Juglone in the root of Juglans nigra is alleleopathic to many plants. Juglans nigra can also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on various nuts.

Insects: Carya spp. are important for bees as a source of pollen and honeydew.

Invasiveness: Juglans nigra is prone to come up strong in open farm fields left uncultivated. Every member of the family represented in Wofford is native to the Blue Ridge.

Dye Plants: All of the above species can be used for dyes. Some are colorfast without mordants.

Other Crafts: Juglans spp. and Carya spp. woods are highly valued for a diversity of crafts including veneers, paneling, carving, utensils etc. Carya spp. are also used for BBQ woodchips.

Aesthetics: Most members make striking landscape trees. Hickories have a beautiful mustard yellow color in the fall.

Aromatics: Leaves and bark of Hickory (Carya spp.) and Walnut (Juglans spp.) are aromatic.

Lauraceae/Bay leaf

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2	Genera	13	Genera	50
Species	2(n)	Species	40	Species	2500-2750
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	4

Blue Ridge Genera: Lindera (1), Sassafras (1)

            Western Genera: California Bay Laurel (Umbellularia californica)

            This is an aromatic, ancient and mostly tropical family

Food: Fruits of Spice Bush (Lindera benzoin) are used like allspice. Twigs and leaves of Spice Bush and Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are used in tea. Roots of Sassafras were used for a traditional root beer. Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) is popular as a pot herb. Leaves of California Bay (Umbellularia californica) can be used like Bay leaves though they are stronger in taste. Nuts have also been consumed when prepared properly. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) is famous as a flavoring spice and also is a potent medicinal. The famous fruit Avocado (Persea spp.) is in this family. Red Bay in the same genus (Persea spp.) grows in Florida and its leaves have been used for flavoring.

Toxicity: Presence of the phytochemical safrole has led to disuse of Sassafras. However its toxicity is less than many commonly consumed substances including beer (Duke & Foster, 1999). Consumption in moderation is probably prudent. California Bay is the carrier of Sudden Oak Death.

Birds: Fruits of various members from the Lauraceae are relished by birds in their long migration south for the winter.

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants: Sassafras can be used as a dye plant (Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

Aesthetics:  Most members of the Lauraceae are attractive at all times of year.

Aromatics: Bark, leaves, flowers are often aromatic for most members of the Lauraceae.

Magnoliaceae/Magnolia Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2	Genera	2	Genera	2-3-10
Species	6	Species	11	Species	220
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa

Taxonomic commentary: This is a small family with primitive flower characteristics and a distinct link to Eastern Asia.

Blue Ridge Genera: Liriodendron (1), Magnolia (5)

Food: The only edible part is the copious nectar from Tulip Tree flowers.

Toxicity: Magnolia grandiflora can cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: Tulip tree (L. tulipifera) is one of the major bee trees in the Appalachian region.

Invasiveness: None known

Dye Plants: Liriodendron tulipifera can be used as a dye (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).

Aesthetics:  The exotic but not invasive Saucer Magnolia (M. x soulangeana) and Star Magnolia (M. stellata) make beautiful landscape plants.

Aromatics: Many members of the Magnoliaceae have fabulous smells.

Other Crafts: The fruiting structure of Magnolia can be used ornamentally. Magnolia wood is a classic one used in carving and making bowls. Tulip tree wood is also used in carving, basket making and wood siding.

Malvaceae/Mallow Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n) 2(i)	Genera	41	Genera	115
Species	5(n) 8(i)	Species	260	Species	2000
Lower taxa	2	Lower Taxa	93

Blue Ridge Genera: Abutilon (1), Hibiscus (3,2), Iliamna (1), Malva (3), Sida (1,2)

Wofford excluded Althea rosea, Malva rotundifolia and Modiola caroliniana.

Food: Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is a cultivated crop that is famous in the south. Most leaves can be consumed raw, cooked or as tea including Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis), Mallows (Malva spp.). Flowers are edible as well for almost all species. The calyces of Cranberry Hibiscus or Roselle (Hibiscus acetosa and H. sabdariffa) make a fabulous beverage. Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) can is imminently edible for flowers and cooked greens.

Toxicity: The Malvaceae is generally considered a non-toxic family with the exception of cottons (Gossypium spp.)

Insects: Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) is popular with bees.

Invasiveness: Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) can become locally invasive. Malva spp. can spread readily.

Dye Plants: Cotton (Gossypium spp.) (A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).  Hibiscus spp. (Buchanan, 1995; Fern, 2009) and Malva spp. (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009).

Aesthetics: Many members have beautiful flowers including Hibiscuses (Hibiscus spp.) and Hollyhocks (Alcea spp.).

Pinaceae/Pine Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	4(n)	Genera	7	Genera
Species	11(n)	Species	72	Species
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	35

Blue Ridge Genera: Abies (2), Picea (1), Pinus (6), Tsuga (2)

            Wofford excluded Larch (Larix decidua) and Norway spruce (Picea abies)

Food: Tea and beer can be made from the needles of Pine (Pinus spp.) and Spruces (Picea spp.). The sap from Picea spp. can be used like a chewing gum according to a personal conversation with Doug Elliot www.dougelliott.com .

Toxicity: The smoke from resinous yellow Pines especially their cones should not be inhaled in large quantities. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) can cause contact dermatitis (L. S. Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007).

Insects: Pine Bark beetles are a problem from coast to coast in the United States.

Dye Plants:

      Spruce (Picea spp.) (A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis,

      1967)

      Hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis and T. caroliniana) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Moerman, 1998; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967)

      Pines (Pinus spp.) (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2008)

Other Crafts: Endless crafts can be pursued using the cones alone. White pine wood is generally considered more choice than yellow pine wood. White pines tend to have needles grouped in 5’s. This is probably the most important family in the world for timber.

Aesthetics:  Many species make great evergreen landscape trees and are often used as Christmas trees as well.

Rosaceae/Rose Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	20(n) 3(i)	Genera	67	Genera	85-100
Species	83(n) 19(i)	Species	842	Species	2000
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	406		1,300-1500

Taxonomic commentary: The taxonomy of Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) and Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.) is very messy (Lance, 2004).

Blue Ridge Genera: Agrimonia (5), Alchemilla (1), Amelanchier (5), Aronia (2), Aruncus (1) Crataegus (19,1), Dalibarda (1), Duchesnea (1), Filipendula (1), Fragaria (2), Geum (7), Malus (2,1), Physocarpus (1), Porteranthus (2), Potentilla (4,2), Prunus (7,4), Pyrus (1), Rosa (5,4), Rubus (11,3), Sanguisorba (1), Sorbus (1), Spiraea (5,1), Waldsteinia (2)

            Wofford excluded: Potentilla anserine, P. intermedia, P. rivalis, Prunus caroliniana, Rosa bracteata, R. damascena, R. gallica, Rubus discolor, R. illecebrosus, Sanguisorba minor, Spiraea prunifolium, S. salicifolia, S. x vanhouttei.

Food: This is one of the major families for fruits in the temperate world including Apples (Malus spp.), Pears (Pyrus spp.), Strawberry (Fragaria spp.). Plums, Cherries, Apricots, Peaches, Nectarines, and Almonds are all in the same genus (Prunus spp.). Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), Chokeberry (Aronia spp.) and Mountain Ash (Sorbus spp.) are a few wild genera that are foraged for food. Many shrubs including cane fruits (Rubus spp.) and Roses (Rosa spp.) also are edible. Apple wood is used to smoke food as well.

Toxicity: Cyanogenic glycocides are present in some members of the Rosaceae (L.S. Nelson et al., 2007). Some people are allergic to members of the Rosaceae such as Strawberries. Agrimony (Agrimonia spp.) and Tea Rose (Rosa odorata) can cause contact dermatitis in particular (Nelson et al., 2007). Triterpine saponins occur in the Rosaceae too (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).

Insects: Most plants in the Rosaceae provide copious amounts of early pollen and nectar for bees. Japanese Beetles can be a pest on members of this family. Black Cherry (Prunus serotina) is one of the greatest supporters/targets of insects (Tallamy, 2009).

Invasiveness: Shrubby Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and Eelkek (R. mollucana) both are not listed in Wofford (1989) but are high priority invasives for many states. Wineberry (R. phoenicolasius) can be somewhat invasive locally. Wild Strawberry (Duchesnea indica), Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla recta) and Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana) can be invasive. Japanese spirea (Spiraea japonica) is an exotic invasive shrub. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) is one of the worst exotic invasives in the eastern U.S. (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989)

Dye Plants: Apples (Malus spp.) Cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), Pear (Pyrus communis), Plum (Prunus americana), Peach (P. persica), Wild Black Cherry (P. serotina). Brambles (Rubus fruticosus, R. idaeus, and R. tricolor). An incredible 124 species of Prunus and 158 species of Rubus have been listed as dyes (Fern, 2008)!

Other Crafts: Wood is good for carving.

Aesthetics: Many members of the Rosaceae have beautiful flowers, attractive fruits and nice bark.

Salicaceae/Willow Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	2	Genera	2	Genera	2
Species	10(n) 4(i)	Species	117	Species	385
Lower taxa	3	Lower Taxa	95

Blue Ridge Genera: Populus (3,2) Salix (7,2)

Wofford excluded: Populus x canescens, Populus nigra, Salix caprea, S. cinerea ssp. cinerea, S. cinerea ssp. oleifolia, S. pentandra, and S. purpurea.

Medicine: Willows are famous for their salicylic acid compounds that act like aspirin to bring about pain relief when applied in sufficient dosage (Foster & Hobbs, 2002; Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).

Toxicity: ?

Insects: Willows (Salix spp.) provide early food to bees in the late winter time.

Invasiveness: Silver poplar (Populus alba) can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006).

Dye Plants: Many willows have been used as dyes including (S. alba, S. caprea, S. cinerea, S. fragilis, S. purpurea, and S. viminalis)

Other Crafts: Many species of Willows are used for basketry (Trestain, 1998). Living fences and structures have also been formed out of Willow. Various species are coppiced. The unopened inflorescences are famous as additions to floral arrangements as well.

Aesthetics: Many species of both genera are valued landscape plants especially Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica). Willows and Poplars are some of the most cold hardy deciduous trees. They light up places with their beautiful yellow leaves in the fall.

Vitaceae/Grape Family

Blue Ridge		North America		World
Genera	3(n)	Genera	4	Genera	12-14
Species	11(n)	Species	40	Species	800
Lower taxa		Lower Taxa	9

Blue Ridge Genera: Ampelopsis (2), Parthenocissus (1), Vitis (8) Wofford excluded: Ampelopsis brevipendunculata

Food: Grapes (Vitis spp.) are commonly used fresh and for jams, jellies, juices, wines, etc. Some are bigger and better than others. Leaves of Vitis spp. have also been consumed most famously as dolmas from Greece.

Toxicity: Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) and Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata) contain irritant raphides (Nelson et al., 2007).

Insects: Ampelopsis spp. and Parthenocissus spp. are good honey plants.

Invasiveness: Ampelopsis aconitifolia?

Dye Plants:

       Grapes (Vitis spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).

       Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) (Fern, 2008).

Other Crafts: The vines of various species can be used to make baskets but should only be used when abundant.

For the next class we will cover major Medicinal families and it will be posted around September 6th

 Below are items to think about/comment on. Please write me directly at marc@botanyeveryday.com or leave information at the Facebook group. The commentary box under this class is unfortunately not currently functional.

i WOULD REALLY LOVE TO HEAR WHAT YOU HAVE TO SAY!!!

- Make a list of the woody plants around you and share that info with some people

-Start a collection of leaves from the various species you can find

- Think of a craft you can make with woody plants

- Attend a workshop or a class and write up a brief description of plants or information learned.

- Post any clear photos of question plants to Facebook or send in an email.

Praises to all that have donated to the cause. i encourage everyone reading this to donate as they are able financially, commentarialy, or energetically... Your contributions greatly help me continue this crucial work of ethnobotanical research and education. Please let me know your thoughts in general and anyway i can help this class serve you best.

Thanks, marc

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